Milk
Milk is a white liquid food produced by the mammary glands of mammals and the caecilian Siphonops annulatus.[1] It is the primary source of nutrition for young mammals (including breastfed human infants) before they are able to digest solid food.[2] Immune factors and immune-modulating components in milk contribute to milk immunity. Early-lactation milk, which is called colostrum, contains antibodies that strengthen the immune system and thus reduce the risk of many diseases. Milk contains many nutrients, including protein and lactose.[3]
As an agricultural product, dairy milk is collected from farm animals. In 2011, dairy farms produced around 730 million tonnes (800 million short tons) of milk[4] from 260 million dairy cows.[5] India is the world's largest producer of milk and the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, but it exports few other milk products.[6][7] Because there is an ever-increasing demand for dairy products in India, it could eventually become a net importer of dairy products.[8] New Zealand, Germany, and the Netherlands are the largest exporters of milk products.[9] The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that children over the age of 12 months should have two servings of dairy milk products a day.[10]
More than six billion people worldwide consume milk and milk products, and between 750 and 900 million people live in dairy-farming households.[11]
Etymology and terminology
The term milk comes from "Old English meoluc (West Saxon), milc (Anglian), from Proto-Germanic *meluks "milk" (source also of Old Norse mjolk, Old Frisian melok, Old Saxon miluk, Dutch melk, Old High German miluh, German Milch, Gothic miluks)".[12]
Since 1961, the term milk has been defined under Codex Alimentarius standards as "the normal mammary secretion of milking animals obtained from one or more milkings without either addition to it or extraction from it, intended for consumption as liquid milk or for further processing."[13] The term dairy refers to animal milk and animal milk production.
Types of consumption
There are two distinct categories of milk consumption: all infant mammals drink milk directly from their mothers' bodies, and it is their primary source of nutrition; and humans obtain milk from other mammals for consumption by humans of all ages, as one component of a varied diet.
Nutrition for infant mammals
In almost all mammals, milk is fed to
For humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for up to two years of age or more.[16] In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer.[17]
Fresh goats' milk is sometimes substituted for
Food product for humans
In many cultures, especially in the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other mammals (especially cattle, goats and sheep) as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, an enzyme necessary for digesting the lactose in milk. People therefore converted milk to curd, cheese, and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in northwestern Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood. This mutation allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed.[19] Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream, and cheese. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, and many other food-additives and industrial products.
Whole milk, butter, and cream have high levels of saturated fat.[20][21] The sugar lactose is found only in milk, and possibly in forsythia flowers and a few tropical shrubs.[22] Lactase, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, reaches its highest levels in the human small intestine immediately after birth, and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly.[23] Those groups who continue to tolerate milk have often exercised great creativity in using the milk of domesticated ungulates, not only cattle, but also sheep, goats, yaks, water buffalo, horses, reindeer and camels. India is the largest producer and consumer of cattle milk and buffalo milk in the world.[24]
Country | Milk (liters) | Cheese (kg) | Butter (kg) |
---|---|---|---|
Ireland | 135.6 | 6.7 | 2.4 |
Finland | 127.0 | 22.5 | 4.1 |
United Kingdom | 105.9 | 10.9 | 3.0 |
Australia | 105.3 | 11.7 | 4.0 |
Sweden | 90.1 | 19.1 | 1.7 |
Canada | 78.4 | 12.3 | 2.5 |
United States | 75.8 | 15.1 | 2.8 |
Europe | 62.8 | 17.1 | 3.6 |
Brazil | 55.7 | 3.6 | 0.4 |
France | 55.5 | 26.3 | 7.5 |
Italy | 54.2 | 21.8 | 2.3 |
Germany | 51.8 | 22.9 | 5.9 |
Greece | 49.1 | 23.4 | 0.7 |
Netherlands | 47.5 | 19.4 | 3.3 |
India | 39.5 | – | 3.5 |
China | 9.1 | – | 0.1 |
History
Humans first learned to consume the milk of other mammals regularly following the domestication of animals during the Neolithic Revolution or the development of agriculture. This development occurred independently in several global locations from as early as 9000–7000 BC in Mesopotamia[26] to 3500–3000 BC in the Americas.[27] People first domesticated the most important dairy animals – cattle, sheep and goats – in Southwest Asia, although domestic cattle had been independently derived from wild aurochs populations several times since.[28] Initially animals were kept for meat, and archaeologist Andrew Sherratt has suggested that dairying, along with the exploitation of domestic animals for hair and labor, began much later in a separate secondary products revolution in the fourth millennium BC.[29] Sherratt's model is not supported by recent findings, based on the analysis of lipid residue in prehistoric pottery, that shows that dairying was practiced in the early phases of agriculture in Southwest Asia, by at least the seventh millennium BC.[30][31]
From Southwest Asia domestic dairy animals spread to Europe (beginning around 7000 BC but did not reach Britain and Scandinavia until after 4000 BC),
In the
James Rosier's record of the 1605 voyage made by George Weymouth to New England reported that the Wabanaki people Weymouth captured in Maine milked "Rain-Deere and Fallo-Deere." But Journalist Avery Yale Kamila and food historians said Rosier "misinterpreted the evidence." Historians report the Wabanaki did not domesticate deer.[42][43] The tribes of the northern woodlands have historically been making nut milk.[44] Cows were imported to New England in 1624.[45]
Industrialization
The growth in urban population, coupled with the expansion of the railway network in the mid-19th century, brought about a revolution in milk production and supply. Individual railway firms began transporting milk from rural areas to London from the 1840s and 1850s. Possibly the first such instance was in 1846, when
Urban demand began to grow, as consumer purchasing power increased and milk became regarded as a required daily commodity. Over the last three decades of the 19th century, demand for milk in most parts of the country doubled or, in some cases, tripled.
The first glass bottle packaging for milk was used in the 1870s. The first company to do so may have been the New York Dairy Company in 1877. The
In 1863, French chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur invented pasteurization, a method of killing harmful bacteria in beverages and food products.[49] He developed this method while on summer vacation in Arbois, to remedy the frequent acidity of the local wines.[50] He found out experimentally that it is sufficient to heat a young wine to only about 50–60 °C (122–140 °F) for a brief time to kill the microbes, and that the wine could be nevertheless properly aged without sacrificing the final quality.[50] In honor of Pasteur, the process became known as "pasteurization". Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring.[51] Commercial pasteurizing equipment was produced in Germany in the 1880s, and producers adopted the process in Copenhagen and Stockholm by 1885.[52][53]
Sources
The females of all mammal species can, by definition, produce milk, but cow's milk dominates commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows.
In the Western world, cow's milk is produced on an industrial scale and is, by far, the most commonly consumed form of milk. Commercial dairy farming using
Other animal-based sources
Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include
In Russia and Sweden, small moose dairies also exist.[66]
According to the US National Bison Association, American bison (also called American buffalo) are not milked commercially;[67] however, various sources report cows resulting from cross-breeding bison and domestic cattle are good milk producers, and have been used both during the European settlement of North America[68] and during the development of commercial Beefalo in the 1970s and 1980s.[69]
Production worldwide
Rank | Country | Production ( metric tons )
|
---|---|---|
1 | India | 186,143,000 |
– | European Union | 167,256,000 |
2 | United States | 98,646,000 |
3 | Pakistan | 45,623,000 |
4 | Brazil | 35,539,000 |
5 | China | 31,592,000 |
6 | Russia | 31,527,000 |
7 | Turkey | 22,791,000 |
8 | New Zealand | 21,372,000 |
World | 842,989,000 |
Rank | Country | Production (metric tons) |
---|---|---|
1 | India | 5,888,077 |
2 | Bangladesh | 2,671,911 |
3 | Sudan | 1,165,043 |
4 | Pakistan | 965,000 |
5 | France | 679,300 |
6 | Turkey | 554,143 |
7 | Spain | 523,900 |
8 | South Sudan | 467,148 |
9 | Niger | 407,346 |
10 | Netherlands | 407,000 |
In 2012, the largest producer of milk and milk products was India, followed by the United States of America, China, Pakistan and Brazil.[77] All 28 European Union members together produced 153.8 million tonnes (169.5 million short tons) of milk in 2013, the largest by any politico-economic union.[78]
Increasing affluence in developing countries, as well as increased promotion of milk and milk products, has led to a rise in milk consumption in developing countries in recent years. In turn, the opportunities presented by these growing markets have attracted investments by multinational dairy firms. Nevertheless, in many countries production remains on a small scale and presents significant opportunities for diversification of income sources by small farms.[79] Local milk collection centers, where milk is collected and chilled prior to being transferred to urban dairies, are a good example of where farmers have been able to work on a cooperative basis, particularly in countries such as India.[80]
Production yields
FAO reports[54] Israel dairy farms are the most productive in the world, with a yield of 12,546 kilograms (27,659 lb) milk per cow per year. This survey over 2001 and 2007 was conducted by ICAR (International Committee for Animal Recording)[81] across 17 developed countries. The survey found that the average herd size in these developed countries increased from 74 to 99 cows per herd between 2001 and 2007. A dairy farm had an average of 19 cows per herd in Norway, and 337 in New Zealand. Annual milk production in the same period increased from 7,726 to 8,550 kg (17,033 to 18,850 lb) per cow in these developed countries. The lowest average production was in New Zealand at 3,974 kg (8,761 lb) per cow. The milk yield per cow depended on production systems, nutrition of the cows, and only to a minor extent different genetic potential of the animals. What the cow ate made the most impact on the production obtained. New Zealand cows with the lowest yield per year grazed all year, in contrast to Israel with the highest yield where the cows ate in barns with an energy-rich mixed diet.
The milk yield per cow in the United States was 9,954 kg (21,945 lb) per year in 2010. In contrast, the milk yields per cow in India and China – the second and third largest producers – were respectively 1,154 kg (2,544 lb) and 2,282 kg (5,031 lb) per year.[82]
The
Price
It was reported in 2007 that with increased worldwide prosperity and the competition of bio-fuel production for feed stocks, both the demand for and the price of milk had substantially increased worldwide. Particularly notable was the rapid increase of consumption of milk in China and the rise of the price of milk in the United States above the government subsidized price.
Composition
Milk is an
pH
The
Lipids
Initially milk fat is secreted in the form of a fat globule surrounded by a
Fat globules vary in size from less than 0.2 to about 15
Fatty acid | length | mol% (rounded) |
---|---|---|
Butyryl | C4 | 12 |
Myristyl | C14 | 11 |
Palmityl | C16 | 24 |
Oleyl | C18:1 | 24 |
Proteins
Normal bovine milk contains 30–35 grams of protein per liter, of which about 80% is arranged in casein
Caseins
The largest structures in the fluid portion of the milk are
Milk contains dozens of other types of proteins beside caseins and including enzymes. These other proteins are more water-soluble than caseins and do not form larger structures. Because the proteins remain suspended in
Species | Ratio |
---|---|
Human | 29.7:70.3 – 33.7:66.3 |
Bovine | 82:18 |
Caprine | 78:22 |
Ovine | 76:24 |
Buffalo | 82:18 |
Equine | 52:48 |
Camel | 73:27 – 76:24 |
Yak | 82:18 |
Reindeer | 80:20 – 83:17 |
Salts, minerals, and vitamins
Bovine milk contains a variety of cations and anions traditionally referred to as "minerals" or "milk salts". Calcium, phosphate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, citrate, and chloride are all included and they typically occur at concentrations of 5–40 mM. The milk salts strongly interact with casein, most notably calcium phosphate. It is present in excess and often, much greater excess of solubility of solid calcium phosphate.[92] In addition to calcium, milk is a good source of many other vitamins. Vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, K, E, thiamine, niacin, biotin, riboflavin, folates, and pantothenic acid are all present in milk.
Calcium phosphate structure
For many years the most widely accepted theory of the structure of a micelle was that it was composed of spherical casein aggregates, called submicelles, that were held together by calcium phosphate linkages. However, there are two recent models of the casein micelle that refute the distinct micellular structures within the micelle.
The first theory, attributed to de Kruif and Holt, proposes that nanoclusters of calcium phosphate and the phosphopeptide fraction of beta-casein are the centerpiece to micellar structure. Specifically in this view unstructured proteins organize around the calcium phosphate, giving rise to their structure, and thus no specific structure is formed.
Under the second theory, proposed by Horne, the growth of calcium phosphate nanoclusters begins the process of micelle formation, but is limited by binding phosphopeptide loop regions of the caseins. Once bound, protein-protein interactions are formed and polymerization occurs, in which K-casein is used as an end cap to form micelles with trapped calcium phosphate nanoclusters.
Some sources indicate that the trapped calcium phosphate is in the form of Ca9(PO4)6; whereas others say it is similar to the structure of the mineral brushite, CaHPO4·2H2O.[98]
Sugars and carbohydrates
Milk contains several different carbohydrates, including lactose, glucose, galactose, and other oligosaccharides. The lactose gives milk its sweet taste and contributes approximately 40% of the calories in whole cow's milk's. Lactose is a disaccharide composite of two simple sugars, glucose and galactose. Bovine milk averages 4.8% anhydrous lactose, which amounts to about 50% of the total solids of skimmed milk. Levels of lactose are dependent upon the type of milk as other carbohydrates can be present at higher concentrations than lactose in milks.[92]
Miscellaneous contents
Other components found in raw cow's milk are living white blood cells, mammary gland cells, various bacteria, vitamin C, and a large number of active enzymes.[23]
Appearance
Both the fat globules and the smaller casein micelles, which are just large enough to deflect light, contribute to the opaque white color of milk. The fat globules contain some yellow-orange carotene, enough in some breeds (such as Guernsey and Jersey cattle) to impart a golden or "creamy" hue to a glass of milk. The riboflavin in the whey portion of milk has a greenish color, which sometimes can be discerned in skimmed milk or whey products.[23] Fat-free skimmed milk has only the casein micelles to scatter light, and they tend to scatter shorter-wavelength blue light more than they do red, giving skimmed milk a bluish tint.[96]
Processing
In most Western countries, centralized dairy facilities process milk and products obtained from milk, such as cream, butter, and cheese. In the US, these dairies usually are local companies, while in the Southern Hemisphere facilities may be run by large multi-national corporations such as Fonterra.
Pasteurization
Pasteurization is used to kill harmful
A side effect of the heating of pasteurization is that some vitamin and mineral content is lost. Soluble calcium and phosphorus decrease by 5%, thiamin and vitamin B12 by 10%, and vitamin C by 20% or greater (even to complete loss).[103] Because losses are small in comparison to the large amount of the two B-vitamins present, milk continues to provide significant amounts of thiamin and vitamin B12. The loss of vitamin C is not nutritionally significant in a well-balanced diet, as milk is not an important dietary source of vitamin C.
Filtration
Microfiltration is a process that partially replaces pasteurization and produces milk with fewer microorganisms and longer shelf life without a change in the taste of the milk. In this process, cream is separated from the skimmed milk and is pasteurized in the usual way, but the skimmed milk is forced through ceramic microfilters that trap 99.9% of microorganisms in the milk[104] (as compared to 99.999% killing of microorganisms in standard HTST pasteurization).[105] The skimmed milk then is recombined with the pasteurized cream to reconstitute the original milk composition.
Ultrafiltration uses finer filters than microfiltration, which allow lactose and water to pass through while retaining fats, calcium and protein.[106] As with microfiltration, the fat may be removed before filtration and added back in afterwards.[107] Ultrafiltered milk is used in cheesemaking, since it has reduced volume for a given protein content, and is sold directly to consumers as a higher protein, lower sugar content, and creamier alternative to regular milk.[108]
Creaming and homogenization
Upon standing for 12 to 24 hours, fresh milk has a tendency to separate into a high-fat cream layer on top of a larger, low-fat milk layer. The cream often is sold as a separate product with its own uses. Today the separation of the cream from the milk usually is accomplished rapidly in
The smaller the globules, the more other molecular-level forces prevent this from happening. The cream rises in cow's milk much more quickly than a simple model would predict: rather than isolated globules, the fat in the milk tends to form into clusters containing about a million globules, held together by a number of minor whey proteins.[23] These clusters rise faster than individual globules can. The fat globules in milk from goats, sheep, and water buffalo do not form clusters as readily and are smaller to begin with, resulting in a slower separation of cream from these milks.[23]
Milk often is homogenized, a treatment that prevents a cream layer from separating out of the milk. The milk is pumped at high pressures through very narrow tubes, breaking up the fat globules through turbulence and cavitation.[109] A greater number of smaller particles possess more total surface area than a smaller number of larger ones, and the original fat globule membranes cannot completely cover them. Casein micelles are attracted to the newly exposed fat surfaces.
Nearly one-third of the micelles in the milk end up participating in this new membrane structure. The casein weighs down the globules and interferes with the clustering that accelerated separation. The exposed fat globules are vulnerable to certain enzymes present in milk, which could break down the fats and produce rancid flavors. To prevent this, the enzymes are inactivated by pasteurizing the milk immediately before or during homogenization.
Homogenized milk tastes blander but feels creamier in the mouth than unhomogenized. It is whiter and more resistant to developing off flavors.[23] Creamline (or cream-top) milk is unhomogenized. It may or may not have been pasteurized. Milk that has undergone high-pressure homogenization, sometimes labeled as "ultra-homogenized", has a longer shelf life than milk that has undergone ordinary homogenization at lower pressures.[110]
UHT
Nutrition and health
The composition of milk differs widely among species. Factors such as the type of protein; the proportion of protein, fat, and sugar; the levels of various vitamins and minerals; and the size of the butterfat globules, and the strength of the curd are among those that may vary.[25] For example:
- Human milk contains, on average, 1.1% protein, 4.2% fat, 7.0% lactose (a sugar), and supplies 72 kcal of energy per 100 grams.
- Cow's milk contains, on average, 3.4% protein, 3.6% fat, and 4.6% lactose, 0.7% minerals[112] and supplies 66 kcal of energy per 100 grams. See also Nutritional value further on in this article and more complete lists at online sources that list values and differences in categories.[113]
Donkey and horse milk have the lowest fat content, while the milk of seals and whales may contain more than 50% fat.[114]
Constituents | Unit | Cow | Goat | Sheep | Water buffalo |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water | g | 87.8 | 88.9 | 83.0 | 81.1 |
Protein | g | 3.2 | 3.1 | 5.4 | 4.5 |
Fat | g | 3.9 | 3.5 | 6.0 | 8.0 |
----Saturated fatty acids | g | 2.4 | 2.3 | 3.8 | 4.2 |
----Monounsaturated fatty acids | g | 1.1 | 0.8 | 1.5 | 1.7 |
----Polyunsaturated fatty acids | g | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 |
Carbohydrate (i.e. the sugar form of lactose) | g | 4.8 | 4.4 | 5.1 | 4.9 |
Cholesterol | mg | 14 | 10 | 11 | 8 |
Calcium | mg | 120 | 100 | 170 | 195 |
Energy | kcal | 66 | 60 | 95 | 110 |
kJ | 275 | 253 | 396 | 463 |
Cow's milk: variation by breed
These compositions vary by breed, animal, and point in the lactation period.
Cow breed | Approximate percentage |
---|---|
Jersey | 5.2 |
Zebu | 4.7 |
Brown Swiss
|
4.0 |
Holstein-Friesian
|
3.6 |
The protein range for these four breeds is 3.3% to 3.9%, while the lactose range is 4.7% to 4.9%.[23]
Milk fat percentages may be manipulated by dairy farmers' stock diet formulation strategies. The infection known as mastitis, especially in dairy cattle, can cause fat levels to decline.[115]
Nutritional value
Processed cow's milk was formulated to contain differing amounts of fat during the 1950s. One cup (250 mL) of 2%-fat cow's milk contains 285 mg of
Whole milk has a glycemic index of 39±3.[116] A food is considered to have a low GI if it is 55 or less.
For
Allergy
One of the most common
Lactose intolerance
Lactose intolerance is a condition in which people have symptoms due to deficiency or absence of the enzyme lactase in the small intestine, causing poor absorption of milk lactose.[123][124] People affected vary in the amount of lactose they can tolerate before symptoms develop,[123] which may include abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea.[123] Severity depends on the amount of milk consumed.[123] Those affected are usually able to drink at least one cup of milk without developing significant symptoms, with greater amounts tolerated if drunk with a meal or throughout the day.[123][125]
Evolution of lactation
The mammary gland is thought to have derived from apocrine skin glands.[126] It has been suggested that the original function of lactation (milk production) was keeping eggs moist. Much of the argument is based on monotremes (egg-laying mammals).[126][127][128] The original adaptive significance of milk secretions may have been nutrition[129] and immunological protection.[130][131][132][133]
Tritylodontid cynodonts seem to have displayed lactation, based on their dental replacement patterns.[134]
Bovine growth hormone supplementation
Since November 1993,
Milk from cows given rBST may be sold in the United States, and the FDA stated that no significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rBST-treated and that from non-rBST-treated cows.[138] Milk that advertises that it comes from cows not treated with rBST, is required to state this finding on its label.
Cows receiving rBGH supplements may more frequently contract an udder infection known as mastitis.[139] Problems with mastitis have led to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan banning milk from rBST treated cows. Mastitis, among other diseases, may be responsible for the fact that levels of white blood cells in milk vary naturally.[140][141]
rBGH is also banned in the European Union, for reasons of animal welfare.[142]
Varieties and brands
Milk products are sold in a number of varieties based on types/degrees of:
- additives (e.g. vitamins, flavorings)
- age (e.g. cheddar, old cheddar)
- coagulation (e.g. cottage cheese)
- farming method (e.g. organic, grass-fed, haymilk)
- fat content (e.g. half and half, 3% fat milk, 2% milk, 1% milk, skim milk)
- fermentation (e.g. buttermilk)
- flavoring (e.g. chocolate and strawberry)
- homogenization (e.g. cream top)
- packaging (e.g. bottle, carton, bag)
- pasteurization (e.g. raw milk, pasteurized milk)
- reduction or elimination of lactose
- species (e.g. cow, goat, sheep)
- sweetening (e.g., chocolate and strawberry milk)
- water content (e.g. dry milk powder, condensed milk, ultrafiltered milk)
Milk preserved by the UHT process does not need to be refrigerated before opening and has a much longer shelf life (six months) than milk in ordinary packaging. It is typically sold unrefrigerated in the UK, US, Europe, Latin America, and Australia.
Reduction or elimination of lactose
Lactose-free milk can be produced by passing milk over lactase enzyme bound to an inert carrier. Once the molecule is cleaved, there are no lactose ill effects. Forms are available with reduced amounts of lactose (typically 30% of normal), and alternatively with nearly 0%. The only noticeable difference from regular milk is a slightly sweeter taste due to the cleavage of lactose into glucose and galactose. Lactose-reduced milk can also be produced via
Additives and flavoring
Commercially sold milk commonly has
Distribution
Due to the short shelf life of normal milk, it used to be delivered to households daily in many countries; however, improved refrigeration at home, changing food shopping patterns because of supermarkets, and the higher cost of home delivery mean that daily deliveries by a
Australia and New Zealand
In Australia and New Zealand, prior to metrication, milk was generally distributed in 1 pint (568 mL) glass bottles. In Australia and Ireland there was a government funded "free milk for school children" program, and milk was distributed at morning recess in 1/3 pint bottles. With the conversion to metric measures, the milk industry was concerned that the replacement of the pint bottles with 500 mL bottles would result in a 13.6% drop in milk consumption; hence, all pint bottles were recalled and replaced by 600 mL bottles. With time, due to the steadily increasing cost of collecting, transporting, storing and cleaning glass bottles, they were replaced by cardboard cartons. A number of designs were used, including a tetrahedron which could be close-packed without waste space, and could not be knocked over accidentally (slogan: "No more crying over spilt milk"). However, the industry eventually settled on a design similar to that used in the United States.[147]
Milk is now available in a variety of sizes in paperboard
India
In rural India, milk is home delivered, daily, by local milkmen carrying bulk quantities in a metal container, usually on a bicycle. In other parts of metropolitan India, milk is usually bought or delivered in plastic bags or cartons via shops or supermarkets.
The current milk chain flow in India is from milk producer to milk collection agent. Then it is transported to a milk chilling center and bulk transported to the processing plant, then to the sales agent and finally to the consumer.
A 2011 survey by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India found that nearly 70% of samples had not conformed to the standards set for milk. The study found that due to lack of hygiene and sanitation in milk handling and packaging, detergents (used during cleaning operations) were not washed properly and found their way into the milk. About 8% of samples in the survey were found to have detergents, which are hazardous to health.[149]
Pakistan
In Pakistan, milk is supplied in jugs. Milk has been a staple food, especially among the pastoral tribes in this country.
United Kingdom
Since the late 1990s, milk-buying patterns have changed drastically in the UK. The classic
Almost 95% of all milk in the UK is thus sold in shops today, most of it in plastic bottles of various sizes, but some also in
United States
In the United States, glass milk bottles have been replaced mostly with
The "half pint" (237 mL, 5⁄12 imp pt) milk carton is the traditional unit as a component of school lunches, though some companies have replaced that unit size with a plastic bottle, which is also available at retail in 6- and 12-pack size.
Packaging
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2018) |
Glass milk bottles are now rare. Most people purchase milk in bags, plastic bottles, or plastic-coated paper cartons.
- Argentina
- Commonly sold in 1-liter bags and cardboard boxes. The bag is then placed in a plastic jug and the corner cut off before the milk is poured.
- Australia and New Zealand
- Distributed in a variety of sizes, most commonly in aseptic cartons for up to 1.5 liters, and plastic screw-top bottles beyond that with the following volumes; 1.1 L, 2 L, and 3 L. 1-liter milk bags are starting to appear in supermarkets, but have not yet proved popular. Most UHT-milk is packed in 1 or 2 liter paper containers with a sealed plastic spout.[147]
- Brazil
- Used to be sold in cooled 1-liter bags, just like in South Africa. Today the most common form is 1-liter aseptic cartons containing UHT skimmed, semi-skimmed or whole milk, although the plastic bags are still in use for pasteurized milk. Higher grades of pasteurized milk can be found in cartons or plastic bottles. Sizes other than 1-liter are rare.
- Canada
- 1.33 liter plastic bags (sold as 4 liters in 3 bags) are widely available in some areas (especially the Maritimes, Ontario and Quebec), although the 4 liter plastic jug has supplanted them in western Canada. Other common packaging sizes are 2 liter, 1 liter, 500 mL, and 250 mL cartons, as well as 4 liter, 1 liter, 250 mL aseptic cartons and 500 mL plastic jugs.
- Chile
- Distributed most commonly in aseptic cartons for up to 1 liter, but smaller, snack-sized cartons are also popular. The most common flavors, besides the natural presentation, are chocolate, strawberry and vanilla.
- China
- Sweetened milk is a drink popular with students of all ages and is often sold in small plastic bags complete with straw. Adults not wishing to drink at a banquet often drink milk served from cartons or milk tea.
- Colombia
- Sells milk in 1-liter plastic bags.
- Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro
- UHT milk (trajno mlijeko/trajno mleko/трајно млеко) is sold in 500 mL and 1 L (sometimes also 200 mL) aseptic cartons. Non-UHT pasteurized milk (svježe mlijeko/sveže mleko/свеже млеко) is most commonly sold in 1 L and 1.5 L PET bottles, though in Serbia one can still find milk in plastic bags.
- Estonia
- Commonly sold in 1 L bags or 0.33 L, 0.5 L, 1 L or 1.5 L cartons.
- Parts of Europe
- Sizes of 500 mL, 1 liter (the most common), 1.5 liters, 2 liters and 3 liters are commonplace.
- Finland
- Commonly sold in 1 L or 1.5 L cartons, in some places also in 2 dl and 5 dl cartons.
- Germany
- Commonly sold in 1-liter cartons. Sale in 1-liter plastic bags (common in the 1980s) is now rare.
- Hong Kong
- Milk is sold in glass bottles (220 mL), cartons (236 mL and 1 L), plastic jugs (2 liters) and aseptic cartons (250 mL).
- India
- Commonly sold in 500 mL plastic bags and in bottles in some parts like in the West. It is still customary to serve the milk boiled, despite pasteurization. Milk is often buffalo milk. Flavored milk is sold in most convenience stores in waxed cardboard containers. Convenience stores also sell many varieties of milk (such as flavored and ultra-pasteurized) in various sizes, usually in aseptic cartons.
- Indonesia
- Usually sold in 1-liter cartons, but smaller, snack-sized cartons are available.
- Italy
- Commonly sold in 1-liter cartons or bottles and less commonly in 0.5 or 0.25-liter cartons. Whole milk, semi-skimmed milk, skimmed, lactose-free, and flavored (usually in small packages) milk is available. Milk is sold fresh or UHT. Goat's milk is also available in small amounts. UHT semi-skimmed milk is the most sold, but cafés use almost exclusively fresh whole milk.
- Japan
- Commonly sold in 1-liter waxed paperboard cartons. In most city centers there is also home delivery of milk in glass jugs. As seen in China, sweetened and flavored milk drinks are commonly seen in vending machines.
- Kenya
- Milk in Kenya is mostly sold in plastic-coated aseptic paper cartons supplied in 300 mL, 500 mL or 1 liter volumes. In rural areas, milk is stored in plastic bottles or gourds.[153][154] The standard unit of measuring milk quantity in Kenya is a liter.
- Pakistan
- Milk is supplied in 500 mL plastic bags and carried in jugs from rural to cities for selling
- Philippines
- Milk is supplied in 1000 mL plastic bottles and delivered from factories to cities for selling.
- Poland
- UHT milk is mostly sold in aseptic cartons (500 mL, 1 L, 2 L), and non-UHT in 1 L plastic bags or plastic bottles. Milk, UHT is commonly boiled, despite being pasteurized.
- South Africa
- Commonly sold in 1-liter bags. The bag is then placed in a plastic jug and the corner cut off before the milk is poured.
- South Korea
- Sold in cartons (180 mL, 200 mL, 500 mL 900 mL, 1 L, 1.8 L, 2.3 L), plastic jugs (1 L and 1.8 L), aseptic cartons (180 mL and 200 mL) and plastic bags (1 L).
- Sweden
- Commonly sold in 0.3 L, 1 L or 1.5 L cartons and sometimes as plastic or glass milk bottles.
- Turkey
- Commonly sold in 500 mL or 1 L cartons or special plastic bottles. UHT milk is more popular. Milkmen also serve in smaller towns and villages.
- United Kingdom
- Most stores stock imperial sizes: 1 pint (568 mL), 2 pints (1.136 L), 4 pints (2.273 L), 6 pints (3.408 L) or a combination including both metric and imperial sizes. Glass milk bottles delivered to the doorstep by the milkman are typically pint-sized and are returned empty by the householder for repeated reuse. Milk is sold at supermarkets in either aseptic cartons or HDPE bottles. Supermarkets have also now begun to introduce milk in bags, to be poured from a proprietary jug and nozzle.
- United States
- Commonly sold in Midwest) sell milk in half-gallon bags, while another rectangular cube gallon container design used for easy stacking in shipping and displaying is used by warehouse clubs such as Costco and Sam's Club, along with some Walmart stores.[155]
- Uruguay
- Pasteurized milk is commonly sold in 1-liter bags and ultra-pasteurized milk is sold in cardboard boxes called Tetra Briks. Non-pasteurized milk is forbidden. Until the 1960s no treatment was applied; milk was sold in bottles. As of 2017[update], plastic jugs used for pouring the bags, or "sachets", are in common use.
Practically everywhere, condensed milk and evaporated milk are distributed in metal cans, 250 and 125 mL paper containers and 100 and 200 mL squeeze tubes, and powdered milk (skim and whole) is distributed in boxes or bags.
Spoilage and fermented milk products
When
In order to prevent spoilage, milk can be kept
Powdered milk
The most durable form of milk is
Freezing of milk can cause fat globule aggregation upon thawing, resulting in milky layers and butterfat lumps. These can be dispersed again by warming and stirring the milk.[158] It can change the taste by destruction of milk-fat globule membranes, releasing oxidized flavors.[158]
Use in other food products
Milk is used to make
In language and culture
In Greek mythology, the Milky Way was formed after the trickster god Hermes suckled the infant Heracles at the breast of Hera, the queen of the gods, while she was asleep.[159][160] When Hera awoke, she tore Heracles away from her breast and splattered her breast milk across the heavens.[159][160] In another version of the story, Athena, the patron goddess of heroes, tricked Hera into suckling Heracles voluntarily,[159][160] but he bit her nipple so hard that she flung him away, spraying milk everywhere.[159][160]
In many African and Asian countries, butter is traditionally made from fermented milk rather than cream. It can take several hours of churning to produce workable butter grains from fermented milk.[161]
Holy books have also mentioned milk. The Bible contains references to the "
Abhisheka is conducted by Hindu and Jain priests, by pouring libations on the idol of a deity being worshipped, amidst the chanting of mantras. Usually offerings such as milk, yogurt, ghee, honey may be poured among other offerings depending on the type of abhishekam being performed.
A
To "milk" someone, in the vernacular of many English-speaking countries, is to take advantage of the person, by analogy to the way a farmer "milks" a cow and takes its milk. The word "milk" has had many slang meanings over time. In the 19th century, milk was used to describe a cheap and very poisonous alcoholic drink made from
Non-culinary uses
Besides serving as a beverage or source of food, milk has been described as used by farmers and gardeners as an organic fungicide and fertilizer,[164][165][166] however, its effectiveness is debated. Diluted milk solutions have been demonstrated to provide an effective method of preventing powdery mildew on grape vines, while showing it is unlikely to harm the plant.[167][168]
Milk has been used for centuries as a hair and skin treatment. [174] Hairstylist Richard Marin states that some women rinse their hair with milk to add a shiny appearance to their hair.[174] Cosmetic chemist Ginger King states that milk can "help exfoliate and remove debris [from skin] and make hair softer. Hairstylist Danny Jelaca states that milk's keratin proteins may "add weight to the hair".[174] Some commercial hair products contain milk.[174]
A
Interspecies milk consumption
The consumption of milk between species is not unique to humans.
Jewish/Kosher milk
Chalav Yisrael is the term of Jewish religious law regulating consumption of milk.[180][181][182]
See also
- A2 milk
- Babcock test (determines the butterfat content of milk)
- Blocked milk duct
- Bovine Meat and Milk Factors
- Dairy and health
- Fermented milk products
- Health mark
- Human breast milk
- Lactation
- List of dairy products
- List of national drinks
- Milk borne diseases
- Milk line
- Milk paint
- Milk substitute
- Oat milk
- Operation Flood
- World Milk Day
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{{cite book}}
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{{cite book}}
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- ISBN 1-58330-470-3.
Further reading
- Angier, Natalie, "Not Milk?" (review of Anne Mendelson, Spoiled: The Myth of Milk as Superfood, Columbia University Press, 2023, 396 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXX, no. 16 (19 October 2023), pp. 36, 38–39. "[Americans'] consumption of cow's milk [...] peak[ed in] 1945, when [they] drank an average of forty-five gallons apiece. By 2001 the nation's per capita milk intake had been cut in half, to twenty-three gallons, and in 2021 the figure was down to just sixteen gallons of milk per person, or 5.6 ounces a day... Leading the... drop-off are members of Generation Z: people born after 1996... Among the eco-conscious, antipathy toward dairy milk is great enough that some high-end coffee shops feel no obligation to offer it at all." (p. 36.)
- Dillon, John J. Seven decades of milk,: A history of New York's dairy industry (1941)
- Innis, Harold A. The dairy industry in Canada (1937) online
- Kardashian, Kirk. Milk Money: Cash, Cows, and the Death of the American Dairy Farm (2012)
- Kurlansky, Mark. Milk: A 10,000-Year History (2019); also published as Milk!: A 10,000-Year Food Fracas (2019)
- ISBN 978-0-684-80001-1.
- Prasad, Rajendra (2017). "Historical Aspects of Milk Consumption in South, Southeast, and East Asia" (PDF). Asian Agricultural History. 21 (4): 287–307.
- Scherbaum, Veronika; Srour, M. Leila (2018). "Milk products in the dietary management of childhood undernutrition – a historical review" (PDF). Nutrition Research Reviews. 31 (1): 71–84. S2CID 910669. Archived from the original(PDF) on February 12, 2020.
- Smith-Howard, Kendra. Pure and Modern Milk: An Environmental History Since 1900. (Oxford University Press; 2013).
- Valenze, Deborah. Milk: A Local and Global History (Yale University Press, 2011) 368 pp.
- Wiley, Andrea. Re-imagining Milk: Cultural and Biological Perspectives (Routledge 2010) (Series for Creative Teaching and Learning in Anthropology)