Mindanao

Coordinates: 8°00′N 125°00′E / 8.000°N 125.000°E / 8.000; 125.000
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For the river, see Rio Grande de Mindanao. For the 2019 film, see Mindanao (film). For the old sultanate, see Sultanate of Maguindanao.

Mindanao
Native name:
  • Pulu nu Mindanaw (
    Bangsamoro Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao
Provinces
List
Largest settlementDavao City (pop. 1,776,949)
Demographics
Demonym
  • Mindanaoan
  • Mindanawan
  • Mindanawon
  • Mindanaon
  • Mindanawn
Population27,021,036 (2021) (Mindanao island group) [2]
Pop. density243/km2 (629/sq mi)
Ethnic groups
List

Mindanao (/ˌmɪndəˈnaʊ/ ⓘ MIN-də-NOW) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of the same name that also includes its adjacent islands, notably the Sulu Archipelago. According to the 2020 census, Mindanao has a population of 26,252,442 people, while the entire island group has an estimated population of 27,021,036 according to the 2021 census.

Mindanao is divided into six administrative regions: the Zamboanga Peninsula, Northern Mindanao, the Caraga region, the Davao region, Soccsksargen, and the autonomous region of Bangsamoro. According to the 2020 census, Davao City is the most populous city on the island, with 1,776,949 people, followed by Zamboanga City (pop. 977,234), Cagayan de Oro (pop. 728,402), General Santos (pop. 697,315), Butuan (pop. 372,910), Iligan (pop. 363,115) and Cotabato City (pop. 325,079).[3] About 70% of residents identify as Christian and 24% as Muslim.[4][needs update] Mindanao is considered the major breadbasket of the Philippines.[5][6]

Etymology

The name Mindanao is a

flood plains" in modern sources.[7]

History

Prehistory

The Agusan image statue (900–950 CE) discovered in 1917 on the banks of the Wawa River near Esperanza, Agusan del Sur
A 1926 photograph of Bagobo (Manobo) warriors

Archaeological findings on the island point to evidence of human activity dating back about ten thousand years. Around 1500 BC,

Austronesian people
spread throughout the Philippines.

The

better source needed] Evidence of stone tools in Zamboanga del Norte may indicate a late Neolithic presence. Ceramic burial jars, both unglazed and glazed, Chinese celadons, gold ornaments, beads, and bracelets have been found in caves. Many of the ceramic objects are from the Yuan and Ming
periods. Evidently, there was a long history of trade between the Subanon and the Chinese.

Rajahnates and Hindu-Buddhism

An old Spanish map of Mindanao island.

In the

Kawi and baybayin were introduced from Java and an extinct intermediate from Sulawesi or Borneo respectively. Cultural icons of the sarong (known as malong or patadyong), the pudong turban, silk, and batik and ikat weaving and dyeing methods were introduced. Artifacts found from this era include a golden kinnara, a golden image believed by some to be a Tara, and a Ganesha pendant. These cultural traits passed from Mindanao into the Visayas and Luzon
, but were subsequently lost or heavily modified after the Spanish arrival in the 16th century.

Hindu-Buddhist cultural influence took root in the coastal settlements, syncretizing with indigenous

Butuan Rajahnate, a Hinduized kingdom mentioned in Chinese records as a tributary state in the 10th century, was concentrated along the northeastern coast of Butuan Bay.[9][failed verification] The Rajahnate of Sanmalan in Zamboanga, was also in Mindanao. The Darangen epic of the Maranao people harkens back to this era as the most complete local version of the Ramayana. The Maguindanao at this time also had strong Hindu beliefs, evidenced by the Ladya Lawana (Rajah Ravana
) epic saga that survives to the present, albeit highly Islamized from the 17th century onward.

Sultanates and Islam

Approximate historical extent of the Muslim sultanates of Sulu, Maguindanao and Lanao in the 19th century

The spread of Islam in the Philippines began in the 14th century, mostly through the influence of Muslim merchants from the western Malay Archipelago. The first mosque in the Philippines was built in the mid-14th century in the town of Simunul, Tawi-Tawi.[9] Around the 16th century, the Muslim sultanates of Sulu, Lanao and Maguindanao were established from formerly Hindu-Buddhist rajahnates.

As Islam gained influence in Mindanao, the natives of the sultanates had to either convert to Islam or pay tribute to their new Muslim rulers. The largest of the Muslim polities in mainland Mindanao was the

Burma (Myanmar) had a large presence of merchants from Mindanao.[11]

Spanish colonization and Christianity

See also: Spanish–Moro conflict
Christian Filipinos, who served under the Spanish Army, searching for Moro rebels during the Spanish–Moro conflict, c. 1887. The insurgency in Mindanao can be traced to the early 16th century.
Catholicism
, circa 1890.

In 1521 Antonio Pigafetta wrote an account of reaching 'Maingdano.' He was with Magellan on the first circumnavigation of the globe and sailing for the king of Spain.[12]

On February 2, 1543,

better source needed
]

By the late 18th century Spain had geographic dominance over the island, having established settlements and forts in most of Mindanao, including Zamboanga City and Misamis Occidental to the northwest, Iligan City, Misamis Oriental, Bukidnon, and Camiguin Island to the north, Surigao and Agusan in the Caraga region to the east, and Davao in the island's gulf coast. Spain continued to engage in battles with Muslim sultanates until the end of the 19th century.[14]

At the same time as the Philippine revolution against Spain, the Republic of Zamboanga rose as a revolutionary state in Mindanao before it was absorbed by the oncoming Americans.

American occupation and Philippine Commonwealth

See also: Moro Rebellion

In the

Treaty of Paris in 1898 Spain sold the entire Philippine archipelago to the United States for $20 million. The 1900 Treaty of Washington and the 1930 Convention Between the United States and Great Britain
clarified the borders between Mindanao and Borneo.

In early 1900s the Commonwealth government (led by Americans) encouraged citizens from Luzon and Visayas to migrate to Mindanao. Consisting mostly of Ilocanos, Cebuanos, and Ilonggos. Settlers streaming into Soccsksargen led to the displacement of the Blaan and Tboli tribes.[citation needed]

World War II

In April 1942 Mindanao, along with the rest of the Philippines, officially entered

Malabang (a town close to Gandamatu Macadar, Lanao) and ended close to the town of Ganassi, Lanao. Davao City was among the earliest to be occupied by the invading Japanese forces. They immediately fortified the city as a bastion of the Japanese defense system.[citation needed
]

Davao City was subjected by the returning forces of Gen. Douglas MacArthur to constant bombing before the American Liberation Forces landed in Leyte in October 1944.[21] Filipino soldiers and local guerrilla fighters were actively fighting Japanese forces until liberation at the conclusion of the Battle of Mindanao.[22]

Postwar era and Philippine independence

Mindanao was peaceful and increasingly progressive in the postwar period, including the 1950s and the mid-1960s. Ethnic tensions were minimal, and there was essentially no presence of secessionists groups in Mindanao.[23]

Marcos era (1965–1986)

Main articles: Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos, Ilaga, Jabidah massacre, and Moro conflict

Under Ferdinand Marcos's administration, Christian groups began to settle in Mindanao, displacing many locals. The population boom resulted in conflicts as the original owners sought their ancestral land domains.[24][25]

The

Marcos administration encouraged new settlers who had emigrated to Mindanao to form a militia, which was eventually called the Ilaga. Anecdotal evidence states that the Ilaga often committed human rights abuses by targeting the Moro and Lumad people, as well as attempting to seize additional territory. It resulted in a lingering animosity between Moro and Christian communities. Mistrust and a cycle of violence are still felt today due to the creation of the Ilaga.[26][27]

The

Bangsamoro Liberation Organization. These movements were largely political in nature, but the prohibition of political parties after Marcos' 1972 declaration of Martial Law led to the founding and dominance of armed groups such as the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF).[27] Ethnic conflicts continued to escalate, leading to incidents like the 1971 Manili massacre, the Pata Island massacre, and the Palimbang massacre.[27]

Additionally, an economic crisis in late 1969 led to social unrest throughout the country, and violent crackdowns on protests led to the radicalization of many students,[29] with some joining the New People's Army, bringing the New People's Army rebellion to Mindanao for the first time.[23]

Marcos' declaration led to the shuttering of press outlets – television stations, national newspapers, weekly magazines, community newspapers, and radio stations – throughout the country, including in Mindanao.[30] The remaining years of the Marcos dictatorship led to the killings of many Mindanao journalists, with prominent examples being Alex Orcullo of Mindanao Currents and Mindaweek,[31][32] and Jacobo Amatong of the Mindanao Observer.[33][34]

Fifth Republic (1986–present)

In 1989, the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) was established, constituted by several provinces in Western Mindanao.

In March 2000, President Joseph Estrada declared an "All Out War" against the MILF after it committed a series of terrorist attacks on government buildings, civilians, and foreigners. A number of livelihood intervention projects, from organisations such as USAID and the Emergency Livelihood Assistance Program (ELAP), aided in the reconstruction of areas affected by constant battles on the island.[35]

In December 2009, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo officially placed Maguindanao under a state of martial law following the Maguindanao massacre.

On September 9, 2013, an MNLF faction attempted to raise the flag of a self-proclaimed Bangsamoro Republik at Zamboanga City Hall in an armed incursion into parts of the city.

On January 25, 2015, a shootout took place during a police operation by the Special Action Force (SAF) of the Philippine National Police (PNP) in Tukanalipao, Mamasapano, Maguindanao. The operation, codenamed Oplan Exodus, was intended to capture or kill wanted Malaysian terrorist and bomb-maker Zulkifli Abdhir and other Malaysian terrorists or high-ranking members of the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF).

Lanao sultans making an open letter to Duterte urging for the quick resolution of the Marawi crisis

In May 2017, President

Marawi siege by the Maute terrorist group.[36] More than 180,000 people were forced to evacuate Marawi City.[37] Around 165 security forces and 47 residents were confirmed killed in the battle, although Marawi residents believe the number of civilians killed was far higher. The official death toll in the five-month conflict is 1,109, most of which were members of a militant alliance which drew fighters from radical factions of domestic Islamist groups.[38]

In 2019, the

Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao
was established, replacing the former ARMM.

In 2024, former President Rodrigo Duterte called for Mindanao to secede from the Philippines,[39] reviving the movement started by congressman Pantaleon Alvarez.[40]

Economy

See also: Economy of the Philippines
Cagayan de Oro skyline in 2018

Mindanao's economy accounts for 14% of the country's gross domestic product. The region grew 4.9% in 2016 against Luzon's 5.5% and Visayas' 9.1%.

Agriculture, forestry and fishing make up more than 40% of Mindanao's market, being the country's largest supplier of major crops such as pineapples and bananas.[41]

There is one defined growth corridor in the island, namely Metro Davao. Other growth centers are: Cagayan de Oro, General Santos, Zamboanga City, Cotabato City, and Pagadian City.[41]

Being the top-performing economy in Mindanao,

better source needed
]

There is also a growing call center sector in the region, mostly centered in Davao City.

Upcoming developments

Some 2,130 government-led infrastructure projects worth P547.9 billion have also been lined up for Mindanao until 2022.

NEDA official said that 68% of that budget will be allotted for the transportation sector, while 16% will go to water resources, and 6% to social infrastructure.

Of this amount, 18 infrastructure projects have been identified as "flagship projects," five of them have already been approved by President Rodrigo Duterte.

The projects include the ₱35.26 billion Tagum-Davao-Digos Segment of the Mindanao Railway, the ₱40.57 billion Davao airport, the ₱14.62 billion Laguindingan airport, the ₱4.86 billion Panguil Bay Bridge Project, and the ₱5.44 billion Malitubog-Maridagao Irrigation Project, Phase II.

Projects in the pipeline are the second and third phases of the Mindanao Railway; the Agus-Pulangi plant rehabilitation; the Davao expressway; the Zamboanga Fish Port Complex rehabilitation; the Balo-i Plains Flood Control Project; Asbang Small Reservoir Irrigation Project; the Ambal Simuay Sub-Basin of the Mindanao River Basin Flood Control and River Protection Project; as well as the Road Network Development Project in Conflict-Affected Areas in Mindanao project.[41]

Administrative divisions

Further information:
Political divisions of Mindanao

The island consists of six administrative regions,[44] 23 provinces, and 30 cities (27 provinces and 33 cities if associated islands are included).

Location Region
(designation) 		Population
(2020)[45] 		Area[i][46][47] Density Regional
center
(capital region)
Component LGUs
  •   Province
  •   Independent city
  •  ∗  Associated island[ii]
Map of the Philippines highlighting the Zamboanga Peninsula Zamboanga
Peninsula
(Region IX) 		3,875,376
(3.1%) 		17,056.73 km2
(6,585.64 sq mi) 		200/km2
(520/sq mi)
Pagadian City
5
Map of the Philippines highlighting Northern Mindanao Northern
Mindanao
(Region X) 		5,022,768
(4.6%) 		20,496.02 km2
(7,913.56 sq mi) 		250/km2
(650/sq mi) 		Cagayan de Oro
7
Map of the Philippines highlighting Davao Region Davao Region
(Region XI) 		5,243,536
(4.8%) 		20,357.42 km2
(7,860.04 sq mi) 		260/km2
(670/sq mi) 		Davao City
6
Map of the Philippines highlighting Soccsksargen Soccsksargen
(Region XII) 		4,360,974
(4.0%) 		22,513.30 km2
(8,692.43 sq mi) 		190/km2
(490/sq mi) 		Koronadal
6
Map of the Philippines highlighting the Caraga Region Caraga Region
(Region XIII) 		2,804,788
(2.6%) 		21,478.35 km2
(8,292.84 sq mi) 		130/km2
(340/sq mi) 		Butuan
6
Map of the Philippines highlighting the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao Bangsamoro Autonomous Region
in Muslim
Mindanao
(BARMM) 		4,944,800
(4.5%) 		12,535.79 km2
(4,840.10 sq mi) 		390/km2
(1,000/sq mi) 		Cotabato City
6
*
Table notes
  1. ^ Land area figures are the sum of each region's component provinces (and/or independent cities), derived from the National Statistical Coordination Board (Philippine Statistics Authority) official website.
  2. ^ The provinces of Basilan, Camiguin, Dinagat Islands, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi are separate islands and/or island groups themselves, but are included under the island group of Mindanao.
  3. ^ A component city, part of the province of Basilan, but whose regional services are provided by the offices of Region IX.
  4. ^ a b c d e f A highly urbanized city, independent from any province
  5. ^ An independent component city, not under the jurisdiction of any provincial government.


Largest cities and municipalities in Mindanao

The list of largest cities and municipalities in Mindanao in terms of population is shown in the table below.

 
Rank Name Region Pop. Rank Name Region Pop.
Davao City
Davao City
Zamboanga City
Zamboanga City 		1 Davao City Davao Region 1,776,949 11 Panabo Davao Region 209,230 Cagayan de Oro
Cagayan de Oro
General Santos
General Santos
2 Zamboanga City Zamboanga Peninsula 977,234 12 Marawi Bangsamoro 207,010
3 Cagayan de Oro Northern Mindanao 728,402 13 Koronadal Soccsksargen 195,398
4 General Santos Soccsksargen 697,315 14 Malaybalay Northern Mindanao 190,712
5 Butuan
Caraga Region
 372,910 15 Digos Davao Region 188,376
6 Iligan Northern Mindanao 363,115 16 Polomolok Soccsksargen 172,605
7 Cotabato City Bangsamoro 325,079 17 Surigao City
Caraga Region
 171,107
8 Tagum Davao Region 296,202 18 Kidapawan Soccsksargen 160,791
9 Valencia Northern Mindanao 216,546 19 Mati Davao Region 147,547
10 Pagadian Zamboanga Peninsula 210,452 20 Ozamiz Northern Mindanao 140,334

Geography

Geofeatures map of Mindanao

Mindanao is the second-largest

Mindanao Sea
to the north.

The island itself is part of an island group of the same name, which includes the Sulu Archipelago and the outlying islands of Camiguin, Dinagat, Siargao, and Samal.

Mountains

Mountains in the province of Bukidnon

The mountains of Mindanao can be grouped into ten ranges, including both complex structural mountains and volcanoes. The structural mountains on the extreme eastern and western portions of the island show broad exposures of Mesozoic rock, and Ultrabasic rocks at the surface in many places along the east coast. Other parts of the island consist mainly of Cenozoic and Quaternary volcanic or sedimentary rocks.

In the eastern portion of the island, from

Lianga, 48 km (30 mi) north of Bislig, reaches a maximum elevation of only 450 m (1,480 ft). The Diwata Mountains, north of these low points, are considerably higher and more rugged, reaching an elevation of 2,012 m (6,601 ft) in Mount Hilong-Hilong, 17 miles (27 km) along the eastern portion of Cabadbaran. The southern portion of this range is broader and even more rugged than the northern section. In Davao Oriental
, several peaks rise above 2,600 m (8,530 ft) and one mountain rises to 2,910 m (9,547 ft).

Mt. Apo
, the highest peak in the Philippines

The east-facing coastal regions of Davao and Surigao del Sur are marked by a series of small coastal lowlands separated from each other by rugged forelands which extend to the water's edge. Offshore are numerous

Philippine Deep. This ocean trench, reaching measured depths of 34,696 feet (10,575 m), is the third-deepest trench, (after the Mariana Trench and Tonga Trench
) on the earth's surface.

A second north–south mountain range extends from

Talisayan in the north, to Tinaca Point in the southernmost point of Mindanao. This mountain range runs along the western borders of the Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, and Davao
provinces. This range is mainly structural in origin, but it also contains at least three active volcano peaks. The central and northern portions of this range contain several peaks between 2,000 and 2,600 m (6,600 and 8,500 ft), and here the belt of mountains is about 30 miles (48 km) across.

West of

Mount Talomo at 2,893 meters (9,491 ft), and Mount Apo
at 2,964 m (9,724 ft). Mount Apo is the highest point in the Philippines. South of Mount Apo, this central mountain belt is somewhat lower than it is to the north, with peaks averaging only 1,100 to 1,800 m (3,600 to 5,900 ft).

In Western Mindanao, a range of complex structural mountains forms the long, hand-like

Zamboanga Peninsula. These mountains, reaching heights of only 1,200 meters (3,900 feet), are not as high as the other structural belts in Mindanao. There are several places in the Zamboanga Mountains where small inter-mountain basins have been created, with some potential for future agricultural development. The northeastern end of this range is marked by the twin peaks of the now-extinct volcano, Mount Malindang, that towers over Ozamiz at a height of 2,425 m (7,956 ft). Mount Dapia is the highest mountain in the Zamboanga Peninsula, reaching a height of 2,617 m (8,586 ft). Batorampon Point is the highest mountain of the southernmost end of the peninsula, reaching a height of only 1,335 m (4,380 ft); it is located in the boundary of Zamboanga City
.

A series of volcanic mountains is located within the vicinity of Lake Lanao forming a broad arc through the Lanao del Sur, Cotabato and Bukidnon provinces. At least six of the twenty odd peaks in this area are active and several stand in semi-isolation. The Butig Peaks, with their four crater lakes, are easily seen from Cotabato. Mount Ragang, an active volcano cone reaching 2,815 m (9,236 ft), is the most isolated, while the greatest height is reached by Mount Kitanglad at 2,889 m (9,478 ft).

Mindanao coast

In

Mount Parker, whose almost circular crater lake measures a mile-and-a-quarter in diameter and lies 300 m (980 ft) below its 2,040 m (6,690 ft) summit. Mount Matutum is a protected area and is considered one of the major landmarks in the South Cotabato
province.

Plateaus

Another important physiographic division of Mindanao is the series of upland plateaus in the

canyons, and at several points waterfalls drop down to the narrow coastal plain. These falls hold considerable promise for development of hydroelectric energy. Indeed, one such site at Maria Cristina Falls
has already become a major producer. The rolling plateaus lie at an elevation averaging 700 meters above sea level, and offer relief from the often oppressive heat of the coastal lowlands.

Lakes and waterfalls

Marawi City, at the northern tip of the lake, is bisected by the Agus River, that feeds the Maria Cristina Falls
.

Another of Mindanao's waterfall sites is located in Malabang, 15 miles (24 km) south of Lake Lanao. Here the Jose Abad Santos Falls present one of the nation's scenic wonders at the gateway to a 200-hectare national park development.

The Limunsudan Falls, with an approximate height of 800 ft (240 m), is the highest waterfall in the Philippines; it is located in

Iligan City
.

Valleys, rivers, and plains

Rio Grande de Mindanao

Mindanao contains two large lowland areas in the valleys of the Agusan River in Agusan, and the Rio Grande de Mindanao in Cotabato City.

There is some indication that the Agusan Valley occupies a broad syncline between the central mountains and the east-coast mountains. This valley measures 110 miles (180 km) from south to north and varies from 20 to 30 miles (32 to 48 km) in width. 35 miles (56 km) north of the head of

Mindanao Sea on the north to Davao Gulf
.

The Rio Grande de Mindanao and its main tributaries, the Catisan and the Pulangi, form a valley with a maximum length of 120 miles (190 km) and a width which varies from 12 miles (19 km) at the river mouth to about 60 miles (97 km) in central Cotabato. The southern extensions of this Cotabato Valley extend uninterrupted across a 350-meter (1,150 ft) watershed from Illana Bay on the northwest to Sarangani Bay on the southeast.

Other lowlands of a coastal nature are to be found in various parts of Mindanao. Many of these are tiny isolated pockets, along the northwest coast of Zamboanga. In other areas such as the Davao Plain, these coastal lowlands are 16 km (9.9 mi) wide and several times in length.

From

Mindanao Sea
.

Climate change

Climate change is expected to have adverse effects on Mindanao's population, environment, and agriculture.[49][50] Mindanao is already experiencing severe climate events attributed to changes in the Earth's temperature. These climate events include typhoons such as Typhoon Washi, Typhoon Bopha and Typhoon Rai as of December 2021. Those storms had severe impact on the island of Mindanao.[51]

Demographics

As of 2017, Mindanao had a population of over 25 million people. This comprises 22.1 percent of the entire population of the country.[52]

Ethnicity and culture

Main articles: Culture of the Philippines, Music of the Philippines, and Kulintang
I-indak sa kadalanan or the Street dancing competition, part of Kadayawan Festival celebration in Davao City.
Davao City's Chinatown
Region Province Major ethnic groups
Indigenous Non-indigenous
Zamboanga Peninsula  Zamboanga del Sur
Tausug, Yakan
 Chavacano, Cebuano
 Zamboanga Sibugay
Tausug
 Chavacano, Cebuano, Ilocano
 Zamboanga del Norte
Tausug
 Chavacano, Cebuano
Northern Mindanao  Misamis Occidental Subanen Cebuano
 Lanao del Norte Higaonon, Maranao, Subanen Cebuano
 Misamis Oriental Higaonon, Maranao Bicolano, Chinese, Cebuano, Hiligaynon , Ilocano, Indian, Kapampangan, Tagalog
 Camiguin Kamigin Manobo Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Kapampangan, Tagalog, Waray
 Bukidnon
Higaonon, Maguindanaon, Maranao, Matigsalug, Talaandig
 Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Ivatan, Tagalog, Waray
Davao Region  Davao del Sur
Tausug
 Cebuano, Chinese, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Indian, Kapampangan, Tagalog
 Davao del Norte
Sama-Bajaw
 Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
 Davao de Oro
Mangguangan, Mansaka
 Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
 Davao Oriental Manobo, Kagan, Mandaya, Mansaka Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
 Davao Occidental Blaan, Tagakaulo, Manobo, Sangil Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
Soccsksargen  Cotabato Bagobo Tagabawa, Iranun, Maguindanaon, Manobo, Tagakaulo Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Karay-a, Tagalog, Waray
 Sarangani Blaan, Maguindanaon, Tagakaulo, Tboli Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog, Waray
 South Cotabato Blaan, Maguindanaon, Tboli Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Karay-a, Kapampangan, Tagalog, Waray
 Sultan Kudarat Blaan, Maguindanaon, Manobo, Teduray Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Karay-a, Kapampangan, Tagalog
BARMM
  Maguindanao del Norte Iranun, Maguindanaon, Teduray Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
 Maguindanao del Sur Ilianen Manobo, Maguindanaon, Teduray Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Karay-a, Tagalog
 Lanao del Sur Iranun, Maranao Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog
 Basilan
Tausug, Yakan
 Chavacano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano
 Sulu
Tausug
 Cebuano
 
Tawi-tawi
Tausug
 Cebuano
Caraga  Agusan del Norte Agusan Manobo, Higaonon, Mamanwa Butuanon, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog
 Agusan del Sur Bagobo, Agusan Manobo, Higaonon, Mamanwa Bicolano, Butuanon, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog
 Surigao del Norte Mandaya, Agusan Manobo, Mamanwa, Mansaka Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog, Waray
 Surigao del Sur Mandaya, Agusan Manobo Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog, Waray
 Dinagat Islands Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog, Waray

An American census conducted in the early 1900s noted that the island was inhabited by people "greatly divided in origin, temperament and religion".

Rajahnate of Butuan in the northeast region (Caraga), the sultanates in the southwest (Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Lanao, Sultanate of Maguindanao
), a number of Buddhist and Taoist temples, and the numerous indigenous tribes.

Today around 25.8 percent of the household population in Mindanao classified themselves as Cebuanos. Other ethnic groups included Bisaya/Binisaya (18.4%), Hiligaynon/Ilonggo (8.2%), Maguindanaon (5.5%), and Maranao (5.4%). The remaining 36.6 percent belonged to other ethnic groups, including individuals from Luzon and the Lumad people (indigenous peoples of Mindanao). Cebuano registered the highest proportion of ethnic group in Northern Mindanao and Davao Region with 35.59 percent and 37.76 percent, respectively. In Soccsksargen, it was Hiligaynon/Ilonggo (31.58%), Binisaya/Bisaya (33.10%) in Zamboanga Peninsula, Maranao (26.40%) in BARMM, and Surigaonon (25.67%) in Caraga.[4]

Like elsewhere, assimilation from one ethnic group into another is not uncommon in Mindanao. Over the last decades, many migrants from Luzon and Lumad tribes in the island integrated and assimilated into the majority Cebuano-speaking society in Mindanao (Hiligaynon-speaking in the case of Soccsksargen), identifying themselves as Visayans, resulting from learning to speak Cebuano or Hiligaynon fluently through Cebuano or Hiligaynon neighbors, despite many of them still know and retain their non-Visayan roots and some speak their ancestor's language fluently at least as their second or third languages, since Mindanao is a melting pot of cultures as a result of southward migration from Luzon and Visayas to the island since the 20th century. Descendants of these migrant Luzon ethnic groups and Lumads, especially newer generations (as Mindanao-born natives), now speak Cebuano or Hiligaynon fluently as their main language with little or no knowledge of their ancestors' native tongues at the time of their southward journey to Mindanao and Lumads developed contact with Cebuano and Hiligaynon speakers.[54]

Languages

Dozens of languages are spoken in Mindanao; among them, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Maguindanaon, Maranao, Surigaonon, Tausug, and Chavacano are most widely spoken. Of the seven aforementioned regional languages, Cebuano (often referred to as Bisaya) has the largest number of speakers, being spoken throughout Northern Mindanao (except the southern parts of Lanao del Norte), the Davao region, the western half of the Caraga region (as well as the city of Bislig and the municipalities surrounding it in Surigao del Sur), the entirety of the Zamboanga Peninsula (with the exception of Zamboanga City), and southern Soccsksargen.

Hiligaynon is the main language of Soccsksargen, where majority of the inhabitants are of ethnic Hiligaynon stock.

Manobo, Tboli and Blaan are the indigenous languages spoken in Soccsksargen. Ilocano, a native language of the Luzon ethnic group of the same name, is also spoken in some areas in Soccsksargen, where they also share residency with Hiligaynons. Surigaonon is spoken in the eastern half of the Caraga region, mainly by the eponymous Surigaonons. Tausug is widely spoken specifically in the Sulu Archipelago, which comprises the provinces of Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi
, with a sizeable community of speakers residing in Zamboanga City.

Maranao and Maguindanaon are the dominant languages of the eastern territories of the Bangsamoro, respectively, with the former being spoken in Lanao del Sur as well as the southern areas of Lanao del Norte, and the latter in the eponymous provinces of Maguindanao del Norte and Maguindanao del Sur and also in adjacent areas which are part of Soccsksargen. Chavacano is the native language of Zamboanga City and is also the lingua franca of Basilan; it is also spoken in the southernmost fringes of Zamboanga Sibugay. It is also spoken, albeit as a minority language, in Cotabato City and Davao City, where dialects of it, respectively, exist, namely Cotabateño and Castellano Abakay, both of which evolved from the variant of the language spoken in Zamboanga City.

English and Filipino are also widely understood and spoken, with the former being highly utilized in business and academia, and the latter being used to communicate with visitors from Luzon and other parts of Visayas. Filipino is also the main lingua franca of Cotabato City and in BARMM as a whole.

Religion

Religion in Mindanao (2020)[55]

  
Aglipayan
(2.16%)
  Other (17.4%)

Aglipayan (2.16%), and Iglesia ni Cristo (5.2%).[4]

Tourism

Major tourist spots are scattered throughout Mindanao, consisting mostly of beach resorts, scuba diving resorts, surfing, museums, nature parks, mountain climbing, and river rafting.

better source needed
]

Energy

Many areas in Mindanao suffer rotating 12-hour blackouts due to the island's woefully inadequate power supply.[67] The island is forecast to continue suffering from a 200-megawatt power deficit until 2015, when the private sector begins to operate new capacity. Aboitiz Equity Ventures, a publicly listed holdings company, has committed to supplying 1,200 megawatts through a coal-fired plant on the border of Davao City and Davao del Sur that is slated for operation by 2018.[68] The Agus-Pulangui hydropower complex, which supplies more than half of Mindanao's power supply, is currently producing only 635 megawatts of its 982 megawatt capacity due to the heavy siltation of the rivers that power the complex. Zamboanga City, an urbanized center in southwest Mindanao, is expected to begin experience daily three-hour brownouts due to the National Power Corporation's decision to reduce power supply in the city by 10 megawatts.[69]

The

Manila Electric Company (Meralco), the largest power distributor in the Philippines, and Global Business Power Corp (GBPC), also a major provider, have announced plans to enter Mindanao for the first time to establish solutions for the power problems within the island.[69]

Major annual events

See also

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External links

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Mindanao.
Look up mindanao in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mindanao.
Wikisource has the text of The New Student's Reference Work article "Mindanao".
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mindanao&oldid=1219361133"