Mindfulness
Part of a series on |
Mindfulness |
---|
Category |
Mindfulness | |
---|---|
MeSH | D064866 |
Mindfulness is the
, and as an intervention during early pregnancy.Clinical studies have documented both physical- and mental-health benefits of mindfulness in different patient categories as well as in healthy adults and children.
Evidence suggests that engaging in mindfulness meditation may influence physical health.[52] For example, the psychological habit of repeatedly dwelling on stressful thoughts appears to intensify the physiological effects of the stressor (as a result of the continual activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis) with the potential to lead to physical health related clinical manifestations.[53][54][55] Studies indicate that mindfulness meditation, which brings about reductions in rumination, may alter these biological clinical pathways.[53][44][56] Further, research indicates that mindfulness may favorably influence the immune system[57] as well as inflammation,[3][58][59] which can consequently impact physical health, especially considering that inflammation has been linked to the development of several chronic health conditions.[60][61] Other studies support these findings.[56][62][63]
Critics have questioned both the commercialization and the over-marketing of mindfulness for health benefits—as well as emphasizing the need for more randomized controlled studies, for more methodological details in reported studies and for the use of larger sample-sizes.[3][need quotation to verify][36][web 3] While mindfulness-based interventions may be effective for youth,[64][65][66] research has not determined methods in which mindfulness could be introduced and delivered in schools.[67]
Practice
Mindfulness practice involves the process of developing the skill of bringing one's attention to whatever is happening in the present moment.[2][6][68]
Watching the breath, body-scan and other techniques
There are several exercises designed to develop mindfulness meditation, which may be aided by
- One method is to sit in a straight-backed chair or sit cross-legged on the floor or a cushion, close one's eyes and bring attention to either the sensations of breathing in the proximity of one's nostrils or to the movements of the abdomen when breathing in and out.[1][web 4][72] In this meditation practice, one does not try to control one's breathing, but attempts to simply be aware of one's natural breathing process/rhythm.[2] When engaged in this practice, the mind will often run off to other thoughts and associations, and if this happens, one passively notices that the mind has wandered, and in an accepting, non-judgmental way, returns to focusing on breathing.
- In body-scan meditation the attention is directed at various areas of the body and noting body sensations that happen in the present moment.[1][2][web 5][web 6][web 7]
- One could also focus on sounds, sensations, thoughts, feelings and actions that happen in the present.[2][68] In this regard, a famous exercise, introduced by Kabat-Zinn in his MBSR program,[web 8] is the mindful tasting of a raisin,[73] in which a raisin is being tasted and eaten mindfully.[74][note 4] By enabling reconnection with internal hunger and satiety cues, mindful eating has been suggested to be a means of maintaining healthy and conscious eating patterns.[75]
- Other approaches include practicing yoga asanas while attending to movements and body sensations, and walking meditation.[1][2]
Timings
Meditators are recommended to start with short periods of 10 minutes or so of meditation practice per day. As one practices regularly, it becomes easier to keep the attention focused on breathing.[2][76] An old Zen saying suggests, "You should sit in meditation for 20 minutes every day — unless you're too busy. Then you should sit for an hour."
In Buddhist context; moral precepts
In a Buddhist context the keeping of
Translations
Mindfulness meditation is part of Buddhist psychological traditions and the developing scholarship within empirical psychology.[6][81][82]
Sati and smṛti
The Buddhist term translated into English as "mindfulness" originates in the Pali term sati and in its Sanskrit counterpart smṛti. It is often translated as "bare attention", but in the Buddhist tradition it has a broader meaning and application, and the meaning of these terms has been the topic of extensive debate and discussion.[83]
According to Bryan Levman, "the word sati incorporates the meaning of 'memory' and 'remembrance' in much of its usage in both the
According to Robert Sharf, smṛti originally meant "to remember", "to recollect", "to bear in mind", as in the Vedic tradition of remembering the sacred texts. The term sati also means "to remember". In the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta the term sati means to remember the
[sati] should be understood as what allows awareness of the full range and extent of dhammas; sati is an awareness of things in relation to things, and hence an awareness of their relative value. Applied to the satipaṭṭhānas, presumably what this means is that sati is what causes the practitioner of yoga to "remember" that any feeling he may experience exists in relation to a whole variety or world of feelings that may be skillful or unskillful, with faults or faultless, relatively inferior or refined, dark or pure."[86][note 5]
Sharf further notes that this has little to do with "bare attention", the popular contemporary interpretation of sati, "since it entails, among other things, the proper discrimination of the moral valence of phenomena as they arise."[86]
Georges Dreyfus has also expressed unease with the definition of mindfulness as "bare attention" or "nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness", stressing that mindfulness in a Buddhist context also means "remembering", which indicates that the function of mindfulness also includes the retention of information.[87][note 6] Robert H. Sharf notes that Buddhist practice is aimed at the attainment of "correct view", not just "bare attention".[web 9][note 7] Jay L. Garfield, quoting Shantideva and other sources, stresses that mindfulness is constituted by the union of two functions, calling to mind and vigilantly retaining in mind. He demonstrates that there is a direct connection between the practice of mindfulness and the cultivation of morality—at least in the context of Buddhism, from which modern interpretations of mindfulness are stemming.[88]
Translation
The Pali-language scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids (1843–1922) first translated sati in 1881 as English mindfulness in sammā-sati "Right Mindfulness; the active, watchful mind".[89] Noting that Daniel John Gogerly (1845) initially rendered sammā-sati as "correct meditation",[90] Davids said:
sati is literally 'memory' but is used with reference to the constantly repeated phrase 'mindful and thoughtful' (sato sampajâno); and means that activity of mind and constant presence of mind which is one of the duties most frequently inculcated on the good Buddhist."[91]
Alternative translations
John D. Dunne says that the translation of sati and smṛti as mindfulness is confusing. A number of Buddhist scholars have started trying to establish "retention" as the preferred alternative.[92] Bhikkhu Bodhi also describes the meaning of sati as "memory".[web 10][note 8] The terms sati/smṛti have been translated as:
- Attention (Jack Kornfield)
- Awareness
- Concentrated attention (Mahasi Sayadaw)
- Inspection (Herbert V. Günther)
- Mindful attention
- Mindfulness
- Recollecting mindfulness (Alexander Berzin)
- Recollection (Erik Pema Kunsang, Buddhadasa)
- Reflective awareness (Buddhadasa)
- Remindfulness (James H. Austin)[93]
- Retention
- Self-recollection (Jack Kornfield)
Definitions
Psychology
A.M. Hayes and G. Feldman have highlighted that mindfulness can be seen as a strategy that stands in contrast to a strategy of avoidance of emotion on the one hand and to the strategy of emotional over-engagement on the other hand.[94] Mindfulness can also be viewed as a means to develop self-knowledge and wisdom.[6]
Trait, state and practice
According to Brown, Ryan, and Creswell, definitions of mindfulness are typically selectively interpreted based on who is studying it and how it is applied. Some have viewed mindfulness as a mental state, while others have viewed it as a set of skills and techniques.[82] A distinction can also be made between the state of mindfulness and the trait of mindfulness.[95]
According to David S. Black, whereas "mindfulness" originally was associated with esoteric beliefs and religion, and "a capacity attainable only by certain people",[96] scientific researchers have translated the term into measurable terms, providing a valid operational definition of mindfulness.[97][note 9] Black mentions three possible domains:[97]
- A trait, a dispositional characteristic (a relatively long lasting trait),[97] a person's tendency to more frequently enter into and more easily abide in mindful states;[98]
- A state, an outcome (a state of awareness resulting from mindfulness training),[97] being in a state of present-moment awareness;[98]
- A practice (mindfulness meditation practice itself).[note 10]
Trait-like constructs
According to Brown, mindfulness is:
A quality of consciousness manifest in, but not isomorphic with, the activities through which it is enhanced."[82]
Several mindfulness measures have been developed which are based on self-reporting of trait-like constructs:[103]
- Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)
- Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI)
- Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS)
- Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale (CAMS)
- Mindfulness Questionnaire (MQ)
- Revised Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale (CAMS-R)
- Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale (PHLMS)
State-like phenomenon
According to Bishop, et alia, mindfulness is, "A kind of nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness in which each thought, feeling, or sensation that arises in the attentional field is acknowledged and accepted as it is."[104]
- The Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS) measures mindfulness as a state-like phenomenon, that is evoked and maintained by regular practice.[103]
- The State Mindfulness Scale (SMS) is a 21-item survey with an overall state mindfulness scale, and 2 sub-scales (state mindfulness of mind, and state mindfulness of body).[105]
Mindfulness-practice
Mindfulness as a practice is described as:
- "Mindfulness is a way of paying attention that originated in Eastern meditation practices"[106]
- "Paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally"[1][note 1]
- "Bringing one's complete attention to the present experience on a moment-to-moment basis"[1]
According to Steven F. Hick, mindfulness practice involves both formal and informal meditation practices, and nonmeditation-based exercises.[107] Formal mindfulness, or meditation, is the practice of sustaining attention on body, breath or sensations, or whatever arises in each moment.[107] Informal mindfulness is the application of mindful attention in everyday life.[107] Nonmeditation-based exercises are specifically used in dialectical behavior therapy and in acceptance and commitment therapy. [107]
Definitions arising in modern teaching of meditation
Since the 1970s, most books on meditation use definitions of mindfulness similar to Jon Kabat-Zinn's definition as "present moment awareness". However, recently a number of teachers of meditation have proposed quite different definitions of mindfulness. Shinzen Young says a person is mindful when they have mindful awareness, and defines that to be when "concentration power, sensory clarity, and equanimity [are] working together."[web 11] John Yates (Culadasa) defines mindfulness to be "the optimal interaction between attention and peripheral awareness", where he distinguishes attention and peripheral awareness as two distinct modes in which one may be conscious of things.[108]
Buddhism
According to American Buddhist monk Ven Bhante Vimalaramsi's book A Guide to Tranquil Wisdom Insight Meditation, the term mindfulness is often interpreted differently than what was originally formulated by the Buddha. In the context of Buddhism, he offers the following definition:
Mindfulness means to remember to observe how mind's attention moves from one thing to another. The first part of Mindfulness is to remember to watch the mind and remember to return to your object of meditation when you have wandered off. The second part of Mindfulness is to observe how mind's attention moves from one thing to another.[109]
In Buddhism, mindfulness is closely intertwined with the concept of interbeing, a philosophical concept used by Thich Nhat Hanh to highlight the interconnectedness of all things. This philosophy, rooted in Buddhist teachings such as Vipassana and Zen meditation, emphasizes awareness of the present moment and ethical living, reflecting the interconnected nature of existence.[110][111]
Other uses
The English term mindfulness already existed before it came to be used in a (western) Buddhist context. It was first recorded as myndfulness in 1530 (John Palsgrave translates French pensée), as mindfulnesse in 1561, and mindfulness in 1817. Morphologically earlier terms include mindful (first recorded in 1340), mindfully (1382), and the obsolete mindiness (c. 1200).[112]
According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, mindfulness may also refer to "a state of being aware".[web 12] Synonyms for this "state of being aware" are wakefulness,[113][114] attention,[web 13] alertness,[web 14] prudence,[web 14] conscientiousness,[web 14] awareness,[web 12] consciousness,[web 12] and observation.[web 12]
Models and frameworks for mindfulness practices
Two-component model
A two-component model of mindfulness based upon a consensus among clinical psychologists has been proposed as an operational and testable definition,[104] :
The first component involves the self-regulation of attention so that it is maintained on immediate experience, thereby allowing for increased recognition of mental events in the present moment. The second component involves adopting a particular orientation toward one's experiences in the present moment, an orientation that is characterized by curiosity, openness, and acceptance.[115]
In this two-component model, self-regulated attention (the first component) "involves bringing awareness to current experience—observing and attending to the changing fields of "objects" (thoughts, feelings, sensations), from moment to moment – by regulating the focus of attention". Orientation to experience (the second component) involves maintaining an attitude of curiosity about objects experienced at each moment, and about where and how the mind wanders when it drifts from the selected focus of attention. Clients are asked to avoid trying to produce a particular state (e.g. relaxation), but rather to just notice each object that arises in the stream of consciousness.[116]
The five-aggregate model
An ancient model of the mind, generally known as the five-aggregate model[81] enables one to understand the moment-to-moment manifestation of subjective conscious experience, and therefore can be a potentially useful theoretical resource to guide mindfulness interventions. This model is based upon the traditional buddhist description of the Skandhas.
The five aggregates are described as follows:
- Material form: includes both the physical body and external matter where material elements are continuously moving to and from the material body.
- Feelings: can be pleasant, unpleasant or neutral.
- Perceptions: represent being aware of attributes of an object (e.g. color, shape, etc.)
- Volition: represents bodily, verbal, or psychological behavior.
- Sensory consciousness: refers to input from the five senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting or touch sensations) or a thought that happens to arise in the mind.
This model describes how sensory consciousness results in the generation of feelings, perception or volition, and how individuals' previously conditioned attitudes and past associations influence this generation. The five aggregates are described as constantly arising and ceasing in the present moment.[81]
Cultivating self-knowledge and wisdom
The practice of mindfulness can be utilized to gradually develop self-knowledge and wisdom.[6] In this regard, Buddhist teachings provide detailed instructions on how one can carry out an inquiry into the nature of the mind, and this guidance can help one to make sense of one's subjective experience. This could include understanding what the "present moment" is, how various thoughts, etc., arise following input from the senses, the conditioned nature of thoughts, and other realizations.[6] In Buddhist teachings, ultimate wisdom refers to gaining deep insight into all phenomena or "seeing things as they are."[6][web 2]
Historical development
Buddhism
Mindfulness as a modern, Western practice is founded on Zen and modern Vipassanā,[8][9][note 11] and involves the training of sati, which means "moment to moment awareness of present events", but also "remembering to be aware of something".[119]
Early Buddhism
Sati is one of the
According to
According to
Zazen
The aim of zazen is just sitting, that is, suspending all judgmental thinking and letting words, ideas, images and thoughts pass by without getting involved in them.[122][123]
Contemporary Vipassana-meditation
In modern vipassana-meditation, as propagated by the
Vipassana is practiced in tandem with
Vipassanā-meditation has gained popularity in the west through the modern Buddhist vipassana movement, modeled after Theravāda Buddhism meditation practices,
Anapanasati, satipaṭṭhāna, and vipassana
Samprajaña, apramāda and atappa
In contemporary Theravada practice, "mindfulness" also includes samprajaña, meaning "clear comprehension" and apramāda meaning "vigilance".[web 17][note 15] All three terms are sometimes (confusingly) translated as "mindfulness", but they all have specific shades of meaning.
In a publicly available correspondence between Bhikkhu Bodhi and B. Alan Wallace, Bodhi has described Ven. Nyanaponika Thera's views on "right mindfulness" and sampajañña as follows:
He held that in the proper practice of right mindfulness, sati has to be integrated with sampajañña, clear comprehension, and it is only when these two work together that right mindfulness can fulfill its intended purpose.[125][note 16]
Monitoring mental processes
According to Buddhadasa, the aim of mindfulness is to stop the arising of disturbing thoughts and emotions, which arise from sense-contact.[126]
According to Grzegorz Polak, the four upassanā (foundations of mindfulness) have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations, but to the awareness of four different aspects of raising mindfulness:[127]
- the six sense-baseswhich one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā);
- contemplation on vedanās, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā);
- the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā);
- the development from the seven factors of enlightenment(dhammānupassanā).
Stoicism
The Greek philosophical school of Stoicism founded by Zeno of Citium included practices resembling those of mindfulness, such as visualization exercises. In his Discourses, Stoic philosopher Epictetus addresses in particular the concept of attention (prosoche), an idea also found in Seneca and Marcus Aurelius.[128] By cultivating it over time, this skill would prevent the practitioner of becoming unattentive and moved by instinct rather than according to reason.[129]
Christianity
Mindfulness traditions are also found in some Christian spiritual traditions. In his Rules for Eating, St. Ignatius of Loyola teaches, "let him guard against all his soul being intent on what he is eating, and in eating let him not go hurriedly, through appetite, but be master of himself, as well in the manner of eating as in the quantity which he eats."[130] He might have been inspired by Epictetus' Enchiridion.[128]
Transcendentalism
Mindfulness practitioner Jon Kabat-Zinn refers to Thoreau as a predecessor of the interest in mindfulness, together with other eminent Transcendentalists such as Emerson and Whitman:[web 18]
The collective experience[note 17] of sages, yogis, and Zen masters offers a view of the world which is complementary to the predominantly reductionist and materialistic one currently dominating Western thought and institutions. But this view is neither particularly "Eastern" nor mystical. Thoreau saw the same problem with our ordinary mind state in New England in 1846 and wrote with great passion about its unfortunate consequences.[web 18]
The forms of Asian religion and spirituality which were introduced in the west were themselves influenced by Transcendentalism and other 19th-century manifestations of
Jon Kabat-Zinn and MBSR
In 1979, Jon Kabat-Zinn founded the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program at the University of Massachusetts to treat the chronically ill.[web 20] This program sparked the application of mindfulness ideas and practices in Medicine[136] for the treatment of a variety of conditions in both healthy and unhealthy people. MBSR and similar programs are now widely applied in schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans centers, and other environments.
Mindfulness practices were inspired mainly by teachings from the
Kabat-Zinn was also influenced by the book The Varieties of Religious Experience by William James[137] which suggests that religions point toward the same experience, and which 1960s counterculture figures interpreted as meaning that the same universal, experiential truth could be reached in different ways, including via non-religious activities.[web 21]
Popularization, "mindfulness movement"
Mindfulness is gaining a growing popularity as a practice in daily life, apart from Buddhist insight meditation and its application in clinical psychology.
The latest changes when people moved from real-life meditation sessions to the applications on their smart devices has been even more accelerated by the global pandemic. Modern applications like are adapting to the needs of their users by using AI technology, involving professional psychologists and offering many different mindfulness approaches to serve a wider audience.[web 25]
Applications
According to Jon Kabat-Zinn the practice of mindfulness may be beneficial to many people in Western society who might be unwilling to adopt Buddhist traditions or vocabulary.[139] Western researchers and clinicians who have introduced mindfulness practice into mental health treatment programs usually teach these skills independently of the religious and cultural traditions of their origins.[1] Programs based on MBSR and similar models have been widely adopted in schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans centers, and other environments.[140]
Therapy programs
Mindfulness-based stress reduction
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) is a mindfulness-based program[web 26] developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center, which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, body awareness, and yoga to help people become more mindful.[2] While MBSR has its roots in spiritual teachings, the program itself is secular.[2]
Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy
Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) is a
Like CBT, MBCT functions on the theory that when individuals who have historically had depression become distressed, they return to automatic cognitive processes that can trigger a depressive episode.[144] The goal of MBCT is to interrupt these automatic processes and teach the participants to focus less on reacting to incoming stimuli, and instead accepting and observing them without judgment.[144] This mindfulness practice allows the participant to notice when automatic processes are occurring and to alter their reaction to be more of a reflection. Research supports the effects of MBCT in people who have been depressed three or more times and demonstrates reduced relapse rates by 50%.[145]
Mindfulness-based pain management
Mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM) is a mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) providing specific applications for people living with chronic pain and illness.[web 27][146] Adapting the core concepts and practices of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), MBPM includes a distinctive emphasis on the practice of 'loving-kindness', and has been seen as sensitive to concerns about removing mindfulness teaching from its original ethical framework.[146][147] It was developed by Vidyamala Burch and is delivered through the programs of Breathworks.[web 27][146] It has been subject to a range of clinical studies demonstrating its effectiveness.[146][148][149][150][151][152][153][154]
Acceptance and commitment therapy
Acceptance and commitment therapy or (ACT) (typically pronounced as the word "act") is a form of
Dialectical behavior therapy
Mindfulness is a "core" exercise used in dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), a psychosocial treatment Marsha M. Linehan developed for treating people with borderline personality disorder. DBT is dialectic, says Linehan,[160] in the sense of "the reconciliation of opposites in a continual process of synthesis." As a practitioner of Buddhist meditation techniques, Linehan says:
This emphasis in DBT on a balance of acceptance and change owes much to my experiences in studying meditation and Eastern spirituality. The DBT tenets of observing, mindfulness, and avoidance of judgment are all derived from the study and practice of Zen meditations.[161]
Mode deactivation therapy
Mode deactivation therapy (MDT) is a treatment methodology that is derived from the principles of cognitive-behavioral therapy and incorporates elements of Acceptance and commitment therapy, Dialectical behavior therapy, and mindfulness techniques.[162] Mindfulness techniques such as simple breathing exercises are applied to assist the client in awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of unpleasant and distressing thoughts and feelings as they occur in the present moment. Mode Deactivation Therapy was developed and is established as an effective treatment for adolescents with problem behaviors and complex trauma-related psychological problems, according to recent publications by Jack A. Apsche and Joan Swart.[163]
Other programs
- Morita therapy
The Japanese psychiatrist Shoma Morita, who trained in Zen meditation, developed Morita therapy upon principles of mindfulness and non-attachment.[164]
- IFS
Internal Family Systems Model (IFS), developed by Richard C. Schwartz, emphasizes the importance of both therapist and client engaging in therapy from the Self, which is the IFS term for one's "spiritual center". The Self is curious about whatever arises in one's present experience and open and accepting toward all manifestations.[165]
- Mindfulness relaxation
Mindfulness relaxation uses
Schools
In 2012 Congressman Tim Ryan of Ohio published A Mindful Nation, and received a $1 million federal grant to teach mindfulness in schools in his home district.[76]
Mindful Kids Miami is a tax-exempt,
In 2000, The Inner Kids Program, a mindfulness-based program developed for children, was introduced into public and private school curricula in the greater Los Angeles area.[168]
MindUP, a classroom-based program spearheaded by Goldie Hawn's Hawn Foundation, teaches students to self-regulate behavior and mindfully engage in focused concentration required for academic success. For the last decade, MindUP has trained teachers in over 1,000 schools in cities from Arizona to Washington.[169]
The Holistic Life Foundation, a non-profit organization that created an in-school mindfulness program called Mindful Moment, is currently serving almost 350 students daily at Robert W. Coleman Elementary School and approximately 1300 students at
Mindful Life Project, a non-profit 501(c)3 based out of Richmond, California, teaches mindfulness to elementary school students in underserved schools in the South Richmond school district. Utilizing curriculum, "Rise-Up" is a regular school day intervention program serving 430 students weekly, while "Mindful Community" is currently implemented at six South Richmond partner schools. These in-school mindfulness programs have been endorsed by Richmond Mayor Gayle McLaughlin, who has recommended additional funding to expand the program in order to serve all Richmond youth.[citation needed]
Education
Mindfulness practices are becoming more common within educational institutions including
Renshaw and Cook state, "As scientific interest in the utility of Mindfulness-Based Intervention (MBI) in schools grew steadily, popular interest in mindfulness in schools seemed to grow exponentially".[175] Despite research on mindfulness being comparatively unexamined, especially with young students, the practice has seen a spike in use within the educational arena. "A relatively recent addition to discourse around preventing school expulsion and failure, mindfulness is gaining popularity for its potential to improve students' social, emotional, behavioral, and learning-related cognitive control, thereby improving academic outcomes".[176] Researchers and educators are interested in how mindfulness can provide optimal conditions for a students' personal development and academic success. Current research on mindfulness in education is limited but can provide insight into the potential benefits for students, and areas of improvement for future studies.[34][177]
Mindfulness in the classroom is being touted as a promising new intervention tool for young students. According to Choudhury and Moses, "Although still marginal and in some cases controversial, secular programs of mindfulness have been implemented with ambitious goals of improving attentional focus of pupils, social-emotional learning in "at-risk" children and youth, not least, to intervene in problems of poverty and incarceration".[178] Emerging research is concerned with studying teachers and programs using mindfulness practices with students and is discovering tension arising from the moral reframing of eastern practices in western school settings. As cited by Renshaw and Cook, "Unlike most other approaches to contemporary school-based intervention, which are squarely grounded in behavioral, cognitive-behavioral, and ecological systems theories, MBIs have their origins in Eastern religious traditions".[175] Some school administrators are concerned about implementing such practices, and parents have been reported to take their children out of mindfulness programs because of their personal religious beliefs. Yet, MBIs continue to be accepted by the mainstream in both primary and secondary schools because, "Mindfulness practices, particularly in relation to children who might otherwise be considered broken or unredeemable, fill a critical niche – one that allows its advocates to imagine a world where people can change, become more compassionate, resilient, reflective, and aware; a world with a viable future".[178] As mindfulness in education continues to develop, ethical consequences will remain a controversial issue because the generic description for the "benefits" and "results" of MBIs are largely concerned with individual and inward-focused achievement, rather than the original Buddhist ideal of global human connection.
Available research reveals a relationship between mindfulness and attention. Semple, Lee, Rosa, & Miller say, "Anxiety can impair attention and promote emotionally reactive behaviors that interfere with the development of good study skills, so it seems reasonable that increased mindfulness would be associated with less anxiety".[179] They conducted a randomized trial of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Children (MBCT-C) that found promise in managing anxiety for elementary school-aged children, and suggests that those who completed the program displayed fewer attention problems. In addition, Flook shows how an eight-week mindfulness awareness program was evaluated in a random and controlled school setting and measured the effects of awareness practices on executive functions in elementary school children. Their findings concluded, "Participation in the mindfulness awareness program was associated with improvements in behavioral regulation, metacognition, and overall executive functions".[180] In the study by Flook, parents and teachers completed questionnaires which propose that participation in mindfulness programs is associated with improvements in child behavioral regulation. These perspectives are a valuable source of data given that caregivers and educators interact with the children daily and across a variety of settings. According to Eklund, Omalley, and Meyer, "School-based practitioners should find promise in the evidence supporting mindfulness-based practices with children, parents, and educators".[176] Lastly, a third study by Zenner, Herrnleben-Kurz, and Walach concluded, "Analysis suggest that mindfulness-based interventions for children and youths are able to increase cognitive capacity of attending and learning by nearly one standard deviation and yield".[174] Application of Mindfulness-Based Interventions continue to increase in popularity and practice.[citation needed]
Mindfulness-Based Interventions are rising across western culture, but its effectiveness in school programs is still being determined. Research contends, "Mindfulness-based approaches for adults are effective at enhancing mental health, but few controlled trials have evaluated their effectiveness among young people".[181] Although much of the available studies find a high number of mindfulness acceptability among students and teachers, more research needs to be conducted on its effects on well-being and mental health for students. In a firmly controlled experiment, Johnson, Burke, Brinkman, and Wade evaluated "the impact of an existing and widely available school-based mindfulness program". According to their research, "no improvements were demonstrated on any outcome measured either immediately post-intervention or at three-month follow-up".[182] Many questions remain on which practices best implement effective and reliable mindfulness programs at schools, and further research is needed to identify the optimal methods and measurement tools for mindfulness in education.[citation needed]
Business
Mindfulness training appears to be getting popular in the business world, and many large corporations have been incorporating mindfulness practices into their culture.[183][184][185] For example, companies such as Google, Apple, Procter & Gamble, General Mills, Mayo Clinic, and the U.S. Army offer mindfulness coaching, meditation breaks and other resources to their employees to improve workplace functioning.[183][186]
The introduction of mindfulness in corporate settings still remains in early stages and its potential long-term impact requires further assessment. Mindfulness has been found to result in better employee well-being,[187] lower levels of frustration, lower absenteeism and burnout as well as an improved overall work environment.[186]
Law
Legal and law enforcement organizations are also showing interest in mindfulness:[188]
- Harvard Law School's Program on Negotiation hosted a workshop on "Mindfulness in the Law & Alternative Dispute Resolution."[189]
- Many law firms offer mindfulness classes.[185]
Prison-programs
Mindfulness has been taught in prisons, reducing hostility and mood disturbance among inmates, and improving their self-esteem.[190] Additional studies indicate that mindfulness interventions can result in significant reductions in anger, reductions in substance use, increased relaxation capacity, self-regulation and optimism.[191][192]
Government
Many government organizations offer mindfulness training.
Scientific research
Effects and efficacy of mindfulness practice
Mindfulness has gained increasing empirical attention since 1970
Thousands of studies on meditation have been conducted, though the methodological quality of some of the studies is poor. Recent reviews have described many of these issues.[3][35][217] Nonetheless, mindfulness meditation is a popular subject for research, and many present potential benefits for a wide array of conditions and outcomes. For example, the practice of mindfulness has also been used to improve athletic performance,[218][31] as a beneficial intervention for children with special needs and their caregivers,[219][220][221] as a viable treatment option for people with insomnia[222][223] an effective intervention for healthy aging,[224][225][226] as a strategy for managing dermatological conditions[227] and as a useful intervention during early pregnancy.[228][229][230] Recent studies have also demonstrated that mindfulness meditation significantly attenuates physical pain through multiple, unique mechanisms.[231] Meditation also may allow one to modulate pain. When exposed to pain from heating, the brain scans of the mindfulness meditation participants (by use of functional magnetic resonance imaging) showed their brains notice the pain equally, however it does not get converted to a perceived pain signal. As such they experienced up to 40–50% less pain.[232]
Research has also investigated mindful movements and mindful exercises for different patient populations.[233][234]
Neurological studies
Research studies have also focused on the effects of mindfulness on the brain using neuroimaging techniques, physiological measures and behavioral tests.
Grey matter concentrations in brain regions that regulate emotion, self-referential processing, learning and memory processes have shown changes in density following MBSR.[245][242] Additionally, MBSR practice has been associated with improvement of the immune system[3][58] which could explain the correlation between stress reduction and increased quality of life.[246] Part of these changes are a result of the thickening of the prefrontal cortex (executive functioning) and hippocampus (learning and memorisation ability), the shrinking of the amygdala (emotion and stress response) and the strengthening of the connections between brain cells.[247][248][249] Long-term meditators have larger amounts of gyrification ("folding" of the cortex, which may allow the brain to process information faster) than people who do not meditate. Further, a direct correlation was found between the amount of gyrification and the number of meditation years, possibly providing further proof of the brain's neuroplasticity, or ability to adapt to environmental changes.[247]
Associations of mindfulness with other variables
Mindfulness (as a trait, distinguished from mindfulness practice) has been linked to many outcomes. In an overview,[36] Keng, Smoski, and Robins summarize: "Trait mindfulness has been associated with higher levels of life satisfaction, agreeableness, conscientiousness, vitality, self esteem, empathy, sense of autonomy, competence, optimism, and pleasant affect. A 2020 study found links between dispositional mindfulness and prosocial behavior.[250] Studies have also demonstrated significant negative correlations between mindfulness and depression, neuroticism, absentmindedness, dissociation, rumination, cognitive reactivity, social anxiety, difficulties in emotion regulation, experiential avoidance, alexithymia, intensity of delusional experience in the context of psychosis, and general psychological symptoms." (References to underlying studies omitted from quotation.)
Effects on mindfulness
The mechanisms that make people less or more mindful have been researched less than the effects of mindfulness programmes, so little is known about which components of mindfulness practice are relevant for promoting mindfulness. For example, meta-analyses have shown that mindfulness practice does increase mindfulness when compared to active control groups.[34][196] This may be because we do not know how to measure mindfulness. It could also be that mindfulness is dose-dependent and increases with more experience.[251][252] To counter that, Bergomi et al.[253] found that "results provide evidence for the associations between self-reported mindfulness and meditation practice and suggest that mindfulness is particularly associated with continued practice in the present, rather than with accumulated practice over years."
Some research into other mechanisms has been done. One study[254] conceptualized such mechanisms in terms of competition for attention. In a test of that framework, mindfulness was found to be associated (as predicted) with having an activated intention to be mindful, with feeling good, and with not being hurried or very busy. Regarding the relationship between feeling good and being mindful, a different study[255] found that causality probably works both ways: feeling good increases mindfulness, and mindfulness increases feeling good.
One theory suggests an additional mechanism termed as reperceiving. Reperceiving is the beneficial effect that comes after the process of being mindful after all the intention, attention, and attitude has been experienced. Through reperceiving there is a shift in perspective. Reperceiving permits disassociation from thoughts, emotions, and physical sensations, and allows one to exist with them instead of being defined by them.[256]
Concerns and criticism
Scholarly research
Many of the above cited review studies also indicate the necessity for more high-quality research in this field such as conducting intervention studies using larger sample sizes, the use of more randomized controlled studies and the need for providing more methodological details in reported studies.[3][36] The majority of studies also either measure mindfulness as a trait, and in research that use mindfulness interventions in clinical practice, the lack of true randomisation poses a problem for understanding the true effectiveness of mindfulness. Experimental methods using randomised samples, though, suggest that mindfulness as a state or temporary practice can influence felt emotions such as disgust and promote abstract decision-making.[257][258][259] There are also a few review studies that have found little difference between mindfulness interventions and control groups, though they did also indicate that their intervention group was treated too briefly for the research to be conclusive.[260][261] In some domains, such as sport, a lack of internal validity across studies prevents any strong claims being made about the effects of mindfulness.[31] These studies also list the need for more robust research investigations. Several issues pertaining to the assessment of mindfulness have also been identified including the current use of self-report questionnaires.[3][36][262] Potential for bias also exists to the extent that researchers in the field are also practitioners and possibly subject to pressures to publish positive or significant results.[8]
Various scholars have criticized how mindfulness has been defined or represented in recent Western psychology publications.[104][263] These modern understandings depart significantly from the accounts of mindfulness in early Buddhist texts and authoritative commentaries in the Theravada and Indian Mahayana traditions.[263]: 62 [264] Adam Valerio has introduced the idea that conflict between academic disciplines over how mindfulness is defined, understood, and popularly presented may be indicative of a personal, institutional, or paradigmatic battle for ownership over mindfulness, one where academics, researchers, and other writers are invested as individuals in much the same way as religious communities.[138]
Shortcomings
The popularization of mindfulness as a "commodity"[web 29] has been criticized, being termed "McMindfulness" by some critics.[web 30][web 31][265] According to John Safran, the popularity of mindfulness is the result of a marketing strategy:[web 29] "McMindfulness is the marketing of a constructed dream; an idealized lifestyle; an identity makeover."[266][web 29] The psychologist Thomas Joiner says that modern mindfulness meditation has been "corrupted" for commercial gain by self-help celebrities, and suggests that it encourages unhealthy narcissistic and self-obsessed mindsets.[267][268]
According to Purser and Loy, mindfulness is not being used as a means to awaken to insight in the "unwholesome roots of greed, ill will and delusion,"[web 30] but reshaped into a "banal, therapeutic, self-help technique" that has the opposite effect of reinforcing those passions.[web 30] While mindfulness is marketed as a means to reduce stress, in a Buddhist context it is part of an all-embracing ethical program to foster "wise action, social harmony, and compassion."[web 30] The privatization of mindfulness neglects the societal and organizational causes of stress and discomfort, instead propagating adaptation to these circumstances.[web 30] According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, "[A]bsent a sharp social critique, Buddhist practices could easily be used to justify and stabilize the status quo, becoming a reinforcement of consumer capitalism."[web 30] The popularity of this new brand of mindfulness has resulted in the commercialization of meditation through self-help books, guided meditation classes, and mindfulness retreats.
Mindfulness is said to be a $4bn industry. More than 60,000 books for sale on Amazon have a variant of "mindfulness" in their title, touting the benefits of Mindful Parenting, Mindful Eating, Mindful Teaching, Mindful Therapy, Mindful Leadership, Mindful Finance, a Mindful Nation, and Mindful Dog Owners, to name just a few.[269]
Buddhist commentators have criticized the movement as being presented as equivalent to Buddhist practice, while in reality it is very possibly denatured with undesirable consequences, such as being ungrounded in the traditional reflective morality and therefore, astray from traditional Buddhist ethics. Criticisms suggest it to be either de-moralized or re-moralized into clinically based ethics. The conflict is often presented with concern to the teacher's credentials and qualifications, rather than the student's actual practice. Reformed Buddhist-influenced practices are being standardized and manualized in a distinct separation from Buddhism - which is seen as a religion based in monastic temples - and expressed as “mindfulness” in a new psychology ethic, practiced in modern meditation centers.[270]
Risks
In media reports, people have attributed unexpected effects of increasing fear and anxiety, panic or "meltdowns" after practicing, which they suggest could expose bipolar vulnerability or repressed
See also
- Alexander Technique
- Affect labeling
- Buddhism and psychology
- Buddhist meditation
- Choiceless awareness
- Coping (psychology)
- Coping Planning
- Eternal Now (New Age)
- Four stages of competence
- Full Catastrophe Living
- John Garrie
- Richard Geller
- S.N. Goenka
- Henepola Gunaratana
- Dennis Lewis
- Mahasati Meditation
- Metacognition
- Mindfulness (journal)
- Mindfulness and technology
- Mindfulness Day
- Mindful yoga
- Nonviolent communication
- Nepsis
- Ovsiankina effect
- Phronesis
- Sacca
- Satya
- Satyagraha
- Sampajanna
- Samu (Zen)
- Satipatthana
- Self-compassion
- Taqwa and dhikr, related Islamic concepts
- Transcendental Meditation
- Watchfulness (Christian)
Notes
- ^ a b Baer cites Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994): Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion, p.4.
- vipassana, namely Sampajañña discerning what is beneficial and what is not, and calming the mind by this discernment.[12][13][14]
- ^ Kabat-Zinn, in Full Catastrophe Living (Revised Edition) (2013), p. lxiv advises to use CD's with guided mindfulness practices: "Almost everybody finds it easier, when embarking for the first time on a daily meditation practice, to listen to an instructor-guided audio program and let it "carry them along" in the early stages, until they get the hang of it from the inside, rather than attempting to follow instructions from a book, however clear and detailed they may be."
Compare Rupert Gethin (2004), On the practice of Buddhist meditation, pp. 202–03, noting that the Buddhist sutras hardly explain how to meditate, and then stating that "the effective practice of meditation requires the personal instruction of a teacher." Gethin seems to echo Vetter (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, who notes that the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta describes the Buddha as instructing his first followers in turn: instructing two or three of them, while the others go out begging for food, signifying the need for personal instruction to learn ho to practice dhyana. - ^ See also Eating One Raisin: A First Taste of Mindfulness for a hand-out file
- ^ Quotes from Gethin, Rupert M.L. (1992), The Buddhist Path to Awakening: A Study of the Bodhi-Pakkhiȳa Dhammā. Brill's Indological Library, 7. Leiden and New York: Brill
- ^ Dreyfus concludes his examination by stating: "[T]he identification of mindfulness with bare attention ignores or, at least, underestimates the cognitive implications of mindfulness, its ability to bring together various aspects of experience so as to lead to the clear comprehension of the nature of mental and bodily states. By over-emphasizing the nonjudgmental nature of mindfulness and arguing that our problems stem from conceptuality, contemporary authors are in danger of leading to a one-sided understanding of mindfulness as a form of therapeutically helpful spacious quietness. I think that it is important not to lose sight that mindfulness is not just a therapeutic technique but is a natural capacity that plays a central role in the cognitive process. It is this aspect that seems to be ignored when mindfulness is reduced to a form of nonjudgmental present-centered form of awareness of one's experiences.[87]
- ^ Sharf: "Mahasi's technique did not require familiarity with Buddhist doctrine (notably abhidhamma), did not require adherence to strict ethical norms (notably monasticism), and promised astonishingly quick results. This was made possible through interpreting sati as a state of "bare awareness"—the unmediated, non-judgmental perception of things "as they are," uninflected by prior psychological, social, or cultural conditioning. This notion of mindfulness is at variance with premodern Buddhist epistemologies in several respects. Traditional Buddhist practices are oriented more toward acquiring "correct view" and proper ethical discernment, rather than "no view" and a non-judgmental attitude."[web 9]
- ^ "The word derives from a verb, sarati, meaning "to remember," and occasionally in Pali sati is still explained in a way that connects it with the idea of memory. But when it is used in relation to meditation practice, we have no word in English that precisely captures what it refers to. An early translator cleverly drew upon the word mindfulness, which is not even in my dictionary. This has served its role admirably, but it does not preserve the connection with memory, sometimes needed to make sense of a passage.[web 10]
- ^ Black: "[S]everal decades of research methodology and scientific discovery have defrayed these myths; mindfulness is now widely considered to be an inherent quality of human consciousness. That is, a capacity of attention and awareness oriented to the present moment that varies in degree within and between individuals, and can be assessed empirically and independent of religious, spiritual, or cultural beliefs.[96]
- ^ Vipassana as taught by teachers from the Vipassana movement is a 19th-century development, inspired by and reacting against Western modernism.[117][118] See also Buddhist modernism.
- ^ Frauwallner, E. (1973), History of Indian Philosophy, trans. V.M. Bedekar, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Two volumes., pp.150 ff
- dharmata, the inseparability of appearance and emptiness (two truths doctrine), clarity and emptiness, or bliss and emptiness.[web 16]
- DN 22; Thanissaro, 2000) and the Satipatthana Sutta(MN 10; Thanissaro, 1995b).
- apramāda (Pali: appamada).[web 17]
- ^ According to this correspondence, Ven. Nyanaponika spent his last ten years living with and being cared for by Bodhi. Bodhi refers to Nyanaponika as "my closest kalyāṇamitta in my life as a monk."
- ^ The resort to "experience" as the ground for religious truths is a strategy which goes back to Schleiermacher, as a defense against the growing influence of western rationality on the religious life of Europeans in the 19th century. See Sharf (1995), Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience.[118]
- ^ "Historically a Buddhist practice, mindfulness can be considered a universal human capacity proposed to foster clear thinking and open-heartedness. As such, this form of meditation requires no particular religious or cultural belief system." - Mindfulness in Medicine by Ludwig and Kabat-Zinn, available at jama.ama-assn.org
- ^ "Kabat-Zinn (2000) suggests that mindfulness practice may be beneficial to many people in Western society who might be unwilling to adopt Buddhist traditions or vocabulary. Thus, Western researchers and clinicians who have introduced mindfulness practice into mental health treatment programs usually teach these skills independently of the religious and cultural traditions of their origins (Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Linehan, 1993b)."[1]
References
- ^ .
- ^ ISBN 978-0345539724.
- ^ PMID 27687118.
Methodologically rigorous RCTs have demonstrated that mindfulness interventions improve outcomes in multiple domains (e.g., chronic pain, depression relapse, addiction).
- PMID 21347275.
- ^ Gary Deatherage (1975). "The clinical use of "mindfulness" meditation techniques in short-term psychotherapy" (PDF). Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. 7 (2): 133–43.
- ^ S2CID 149024504.
- .
- ^ a b c d Nisbet, Matthew (2017). "The Mindfulness Movement: How a Buddhist Practice Evolved into a Scientific Approach to Life". Skeptical Inquirer. 41 (3): 24–26. Archived from the original on 2018-10-02. Retrieved 2018-10-02.
- ^ a b c d Wilson 2014, p. 35.
- ^ a b "Sati". The Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary. Digital Dictionaries of South Asia, University of Chicago. Archived from the original on 2012-12-12.
- ^ Dreyfus 2013, pp. 44–48.
- ^ Polak 2011, pp. 153–56.
- ^ a b Williams & Tribe 2000, p. 46.
- ^ Buddhadasa Bhikkhu 2014, pp. 79, 101, 117 note 42.
- ISBN 978-0-300-22655-3.
Buddhism has no single, agreed-upon traditional definition of mindfulness. Rather, Buddhism offers multiple and sometimes incompatible conceptions of mindfulness.
- ^ a b c d Anālayo B (2003). Satipaṭṭhāna, the direct path to realization. Windhorse Publications.
- PMID 26441167.
- ^ S2CID 43129186.
Mindfulness, the argument goes, was never supposed to be about weight loss, better sex, helping children perform better in school, helping employees be more productive in the workplace, or even improving the functioning of anxious, depressed people. It was never supposed to be a merchandized commodity to be bought and sold.
- ^ PMID 29291584.
- ^ PMID 25818837.
We conducted a meta-analysis to provide a review of MBSR for healthy individuals. The meta-analysis included 29 studies enrolling 2668 participants... The results obtained are robust and are maintained at follow-up. When combined, mindfulness and compassion strongly correlated with clinical effects.
- PMID 25591492.
- S2CID 229940390.
- ^ PMID 33428616.
- ^ Hofmann et al. 2010.
- ^ Hofmann et al. 2010.
- S2CID 34990668.
- ^ PMID 24454293.
- PMID 29651257.
- PMID 33884400.
- PMID 36844353.
- ^ S2CID 149040404.
- PMID 33593124.
- PMID 26657952.
- ^ PMID 30345511.
- ^ PMID 29387263.
- ^ PMID 21802619.
- PMID 29126747.
- PMID 29252162.
- PMID 28767927.
- S2CID 206143093.
- PMID 26937312.
Moderate evidence was found for short-term effects on total psychotic symptoms, positive symptoms, hospitalization rates, duration of hospitalization, and mindfulness and for long-term effects on total psychotic symptoms and duration of hospitalization.
- S2CID 3374099.
- PMID 29342312.
- ^ PMID 24036088.
- PMID 25914434.
- S2CID 4117449.
- PMID 30487903.
- PMID 37867573.
- PMID 27012254.
- .
- ISSN 1573-6644.
- PMID 30806634.
- ^ S2CID 211262159.
- PMID 27352637.
- .
- ^ PMID 28863392.
- S2CID 245951867.
- ^ PMID 26799456.
- PMID 30806634.
- PMID 28676747.
- PMID 25581145.
- ^ PMID 31167026.
- S2CID 39094183.
- S2CID 151941817.
- S2CID 30942684.
- S2CID 149885706.
- PMID 35820993.
- ^ ISBN 978-0861719068. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2017-12-15. Retrieved 2015-01-30.
- ^ Kabat-Zinn himself, in Full Catastrophe Living (Revised Edition) (2013), p. lxiv
- ^ "How too much mindfulness can spike anxiety".
- ^ "7 Tips to Balance Your Work & Life with Mindfulness". mindfulleader.org. Retrieved 2021-06-03.
- ^ Wilson 2014, p. [page needed].
- ^ Ihnen & Flynn 2008, p. 148.
- ^ Teasdale & Segal 2007, pp. 55–56.
- S2CID 195063688.
- ^ PMID 24640415.
- ^ Wilson 2014, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Mahāsi Sayādaw, Manual of Insight, Chapter 5
- ^ Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Vipassana Instructions, pp. 22–27
- ^ "The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation". Dhamma.org. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
- ^ .
- ^ S2CID 2755919.
- ^ a b Sharf 2014, p. 942.
- ^ Levman, Bryan (2017). "Putting smṛti back into sati (Putting remembrance back into mindfulness)". Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. 13: 121 at 122.
- ^ Sharf 2014, pp. 942–943.
- ^ a b Sharf 2014, p. 943.
- ^ a b "Is Mindfulness Present-Centered and Nonjudgmental? A Discussion of the Cognitive Dimensions of Mindfulness" by Georges Dreyfus
- ^ "Mindfulness and Ethics: Attention, Virtue and Perfection" by Jay Garfield
- OCLC 13247398.
- ^ Gogerly, D.J. (1845). "On Buddhism". Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1: 7–28.
- OCLC 13247398.
- ^ "Lecture, Stanford University Center for Compassion and Altruism Research and Education". The Center for Compassion and Altruism Research and Education. 2011. Archived from the original on 2012-11-20.
- ^ James H. Austin (2014), Zen-Brain Horizons: Toward a Living Zen, MIT Press, p. 83
- .
- ^ Gehart 2012, pp. 7–8.
- ^ a b Black 2011, p. 1.
- ^ a b c d Black 2011, p. 2.
- ^ a b Gehart 2012, p. 7.
- ^ Zgierska et al. 2009.
- ^ Didonna 2008, p. 27.
- ^ Kristeller 2007, p. 393.
- ^ Germer 2005, p. 15.
- ^ a b Hick 2010, p. 10.
- ^ a b c Bishop et al. 2004.
- ^ Tanay & Bernstein 2013, pp. 1286–1299.[page range too broad]
- ^ Marlatt & Kristeller 1999, p. 68.
- ^ a b c d Hick 2010, p. 6.
- ^ Yates, John; Immergut, Matthew; Graves, Jeremy (2015). The Mind Illuminated. Hay House. p. 30.
- ISBN 978-1508569718.
- ISBN 978-1-4725-5248-8, retrieved 2023-11-28
- ^ Thich, Nhat Hanh (2020). Interbeing, 4th Edition: The 14 Mindfulness Trainings of Engaged Buddhism. Parallax Press.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, second ed., 2002
- ^ Kabat-Zinn 2011, pp. 22–23.
- ISBN 978-1306752299.
- ^ Bishop et al. 2004, p. 232.
- ^ Bishop et al. 2004, p. 233.
- ^ a b c d e f McMahan 2008.
- ^ a b Sharf 1995.
- ^ "The 18th Mind and Life Dialogues meeting". Archived from the original on 2014-03-22. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
- ^ Vetter 1988.
- ISBN 0-86013-034-7.
- ISBN 086171380X.
- ISBN 978-159030849-3.
- ^ "What is Theravada Buddhism?". Access to Insight. Retrieved 2013-08-17.
- ^ ""The Nature of Mindfulness and Its Role in Buddhist Meditation" A Correspondence between B.A. wallace and the Venerable Bikkhu Bodhi, Winter 2006, p.4" (PDF). Retrieved 2018-01-07.
- ^ Buddhadasa Bhikkhu (2014), Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree, Wisdom publications, pp. 79, 101, 117 note 42
- ^ Polak 2011.
- ^ a b Repetti 2022.
- ^ Lee 2020, p. 363.
- ^ "The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola: Third Week: Eating".
- ^ a b c Harris 2009, p. 268.
- ^ Kipf 1979, pp. 3–8.
- ^ King 2001.
- ^ Wilson 2014, p. 22.
- ^ Wilson 2014, p. 17.
- ^ Bishop et al. 2004, pp. 230–231: "Much of the interest in the clinical applications of mindfulness has been sparked by the introduction of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), a manualized treatment program originally developed for the management of chronic pain (Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Kabat-Zinn, Lipworth, & Burney, 1985; Kabat-Zinn, Lipworth, Burney, & Sellers, 1987)."
- ^ James, William (2012). Bradley, Matthew (ed.). The Varieties of Religious Experience. Oxford University Press.
- ^ S2CID 148411457.
- ^ Kabat-Zinn 2000.
- ^ S2CID 144860756.
- PMID 21802618.
- PMID 21093925.
- PMID 20599141.
- ^ PMID 23616298.
- PMID 14756612.
- ^ PMID 19911432.
- S2CID 59306658.
- ISSN 1358-0574.
- S2CID 29170927.
- ISSN 2530-2787.
- ^ Agostinis, Alessio; Barrow, Michelle; Taylor, Chad; Gray, Callum (2017). Self-Selection all the Way: Improving Patients' Pain Experience and Outcomes on a Pilot Breathworks Mindfulness for Health Programme.
- S2CID 4917280.
- S2CID 45682942.
- S2CID 33688569.
- PMID 22478515.
- ^ Hayes S. "Acceptance & Commitment Therapy (ACT)". ContextualPsychology.org.
- S2CID 4835864.
- ^ Murdock, N. L. (2009). Theories of counseling and psychotherapy: A case approach. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Merrill/Pearson
- ^ "Getting in on the Act - The Irish Times - Tue, Jun 07, 2011". The Irish Times. June 7, 2011. Retrieved 2012-03-16.
- ^ Linehan 1993, p. 19.
- ^ Linehan 1993, pp. 20–21.
- ISBN 978-1608821075.
- doi:10.1037/h0101009.
- PMID 31147359.
- ISBN 978-1462513956.
- ^ Robinson L, Segal R, Segal J, Smith M (December 2017). "Relaxation Techniques". Helpguide.org.
- ^ "Mindful Kids Miami, Inc | Mindful Miami". Mindful Kids Miami.
- ^ "Susan Kaiser Greenland -- Inner Kids". Archived from the original on 2010-04-23.
- ^ "MindUP™". Archived from the original on 2015-04-17. Retrieved 2015-04-17.
- ^ "Mindful Moment Program". Retrieved 2020-02-02.
- ISBN 978-1-119-14733-6.[page needed]
- PMID 22905038.
- ISSN 1449-8367.
- ^ PMID 25071620.
- ^ .
- ^ .
- .
- ^ S2CID 151984948.
- S2CID 143769629.
- S2CID 16258631.
- S2CID 13942589.
- PMID 27054828.
- ^ S2CID 15676226.
- Boyatzis, R. E., & McKee, A. (2005). Resonant Leadership: Renewing yourself and connecting with others through mindfulness, hope, and compassion. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
- ^ ISBN 9781590303474.
- ^ S2CID 145360486.
- PMID 29364935.
- ^ Meditation classes raise attorneys mindfulness (2009). New Orleans CityBusiness.
- ^ Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School (2008). Program on Negotiation Webcasts.
- S2CID 51730633.
- .
- S2CID 144734159.
- ^ Rochman B (September 6, 2009). "Samurai Mind Training for Modern American Warriors.". Time.
- ^ S2CID 30918843.
- .
- ^ S2CID 208186271.
- PMID 32100320.
- S2CID 44877765.
- S2CID 3977651.
- PMID 31169722.
- PMID 30016796.
- PMID 27111302.
- S2CID 53201885.
- .
- ^ "The Science of Relaxation - Lectures by neuroscientist Martin Dresler and psychiatrist Anne Speckens". Radboud Reflects and Donders Institute. December 9, 2020. Archived from the original on 2021-12-22.
- S2CID 209331542.
- S2CID 210166679.
- ^ S2CID 235470939.
- ^ PMID 31464026.
- PMID 32390461.
- S2CID 209232064.
- PMID 34697659.
- PMID 30338418.
- PMID 31908794.
- PMID 26553897.
- PMID 24395196.
- S2CID 54521922.
- hdl:1887/58305.
- S2CID 3775407.
- S2CID 152021458.
- S2CID 146901638.
- PMID 28191449.
- PMID 30294523.
- S2CID 148812598.
- S2CID 53218725.
- PMID 27909646.
- OCLC 6841989774.
- PMID 28141546.
- PMID 29201244.
- S2CID 30061019.
- PMID 27398643.
- PMID 21471390.
- S2CID 51865864.
- PMID 31072005.
- PMID 22956677.
- ^ S2CID 2218023.
- PMID 25688222.
- S2CID 8250105.
- ^ S2CID 205791079.
- S2CID 36235259.
- PMID 27983555.
- ^ PMID 26106351.
- PMID 28670311.
- PMID 28231775.
- PMID 21071182.
- hdl:11250/2488002.
- ^ PMID 22393318.
- Mark Wheeler (March 14, 2012). "Evidence builds that meditation strengthens the brain, UCLA researchers say". UCLA Newsroom. Archived from the original on 2014-05-05.
- S2CID 8410167.
- ^ "Intervention Summary: Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)". Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Archived from the original on 2015-02-09. Retrieved 2015-02-08.
- S2CID 225428262.
- S2CID 16304094.
- S2CID 15972961.
- S2CID 141621092.
- PMID 30524516.
- PMID 27642373.
- S2CID 6968813.
- S2CID 150289273.
- S2CID 198965872.
- PMID 17935530.
- PMID 28506263.
- PMID 27182732.
- PMID 18374739.
- ^ ISBN 978-0861712762.
- S2CID 2244732.
- ^ Bazzano 2014.
- S2CID 145622639.
- ^ Bond, Michael (September 13, 2017). "Lost in meditation: Two books argue over mindfulness". New Scientist.
- ISBN 978-0-19-020062-6.
- ^ Purser R (June 14, 2019). "The mindfulness conspiracy". The Guardian. Retrieved 2020-01-15.
- ^ Shonin E (August 27, 2015). Buddhist Foundations of Mindfulness (Mindfulness in Behavioral Health) (1st ed.). Springer. pp. 90–94.
- ^ Foster D (January 23, 2016). "Is mindfulness making us ill?". The Guardian. Retrieved 2016-01-23.
- ^ .
- S2CID 255783169.
Bibliography
Printed sources
- Bazzano M (2014). After Mindfulness: New Perspectives on Psychology and Meditation. Palgrave Macmillan.
- Bell LG (2009). "Mindful Psychotherapy". Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health. 11 (1–2): 126–44. S2CID 218637476.
- Bishop SR, Lau M, Shapiro S, Carlson L, Anderson ND, Carmody J, Segal ZV, Abbey S, Speca M, Velting D, Devins G (2004). "Mindfulness: A Proposed Operational Definition". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 11 (3): 230–241. .
- Black DS (2011). "A Brief Definition of Mindfulness" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-27.
- ISBN 0-86171-335-4.
- Buddhadasa B (2014). Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree. Wisdom publications.
- Didonna F (2008). Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness. Springer Science & Business Media.
- Dreyfus G (2013). "Is mindfulness present-centered and non-judgmental? A discussion of the cognitive dimensions of mindfulness". In Williams JM, Kabat-Zinn J (eds.). Mindfulness: Diverse Perspectives on its Meaning, Origins and Applications. Routledge.
- Gehart DR (2012). Mindfulness and Acceptance in Couple and Family Therapy. Springer Science & Business Media.
- Germer CK (2005). "Mindfulness. What Is It? What does It Matter?". In Germer CK, Siegel RD, Fulton PR (eds.). Mindfulness and Psychotherapy. Guilford Press.
- Germer CK (2009). The Mindful Path to Self-Compassion: Freeing Yourself from Destructive Thoughts and Emotions. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-59385-975-6.
- Germer CK, Siegel R, Fulton PR, eds. (2013). Mindfulness and Psychotherapy (2nd ed.). Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-1137-2.
- Germer CK, Siegel R, Fulton PR (2005). Mindfulness and Psychotherapy. The Guilford Press. ISBN 1-59385-139-1. (The use of mindfulness in psychology, and the history of mindfulness)
- Grossman P, Niemann L, Schmidt S, Walach H (July 2004). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits. A meta-analysis". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 57 (1): 35–43. PMID 15256293.
- Gunaratana BH (2002). Mindfulness in Plain English. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-86171-906-8. Archived from the originalon 2013-09-02. Retrieved 2008-07-28.
- Hanh TN (1996). The Miracle of Mindfulness: A Manual on Meditation. Beacon Press.
- Harris MW (2009). The A to Z of Unitarian Universalism. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810863330.
- Hayes SC, Follette VM, Linehan MM, eds. (2011). Mindfulness and Acceptance: Expanding the Cognitive-Behavioral Tradition. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60918-989-1.
- Hick SF (2010). "Cultivating Therapeutic Relationships: The Role of Mindfulness.". In Hick SF, Bien T (eds.). Mindfulness and the Therapeutic Relationship. Guilford Press.
- Hofmann SG, Sawyer AT, Witt AA, Oh D (April 2010). "The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 78 (2): 169–183. PMID 20350028.
- Hoopes A (2007). Zen Yoga: A Path to Enlightenment through Breathing, Movement and Meditation. Kodansha International.
- Ihnen A, Flynn C (2008). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Mindfulness. Penguin.
- Kabat-Zinn J (July 2000). "Participatory medicine". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 14 (4): 239–240. S2CID 35760167.
- Kabat-Zinn, Jon (2011). Mindfulness for Beginners: Reclaiming the Present Moment--and Your Life. Sounds True.
- Kapleau P (1989). The Three Pillars of Zen: Teaching, Practice and Enlightenment. Anchor Books.
- King WL (1992). Theravada Meditation. The Buddhist Transformation of Yoga. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
- King R (2001). Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East". Taylor & Francis e-Library.
- Kipf D (1979). The Brahmo Samaj and the shaping of the modern Indian mind. Atlantic Publishers & Distri. ISBN 978-0691031255.
- Koster F (2009). Basisprincipes Vipassana-meditatie. Mindfulness als weg naar bevrijdend inzicht. Asoka.
- Kristeller JL (2007). "Mindfulness Meditation". In Lehrer PM, Woolfolk RL, Sime WE (eds.). Principles and Practice of Stress Management (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
- Langer EJ (1989). Mindfulness. Merloyd Lawrence Books.
- Lee MJ (2020). Moral Transformation in Greco-Roman Philosophy of Mind: Mapping the Moral Milieu of the Apostle Paul and his Diaspora Jewish Contemporaries. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-1614-9660-8.
- Linehan M (1993). Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. Guilford Press.
- Marlatt GA, Kristeller J (1999). "Mindfulness and meditation". In Miller WE (ed.). Integrating spirituality in treatment: Resources for practitioners. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Books. pp. 67–84.
- McCracken LM, Gauntlett-Gilbert J, Vowles KE (September 2007). "The role of mindfulness in a contextual cognitive-behavioral analysis of chronic pain-related suffering and disability". Pain. 131 (1–2): 63–69. S2CID 14841265.
- McMahan DL (2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195183276.
- Melemis, Steven M. (2008). Make Room for Happiness: 12 Ways to Improve Your Life by Letting Go of Tension. Better Health, Self-Esteem and Relationships. Modern Therapies. ISBN 978-1-897572-17-7.
- Miller JJ, Fletcher K, Kabat-Zinn J (May 1995). "Three-year follow-up and clinical implications of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction intervention in the treatment of anxiety disorders". General Hospital Psychiatry. 17 (3): 192–200. PMID 7649463.
- Nyanaponika (1998). Het hart van boeddhistische meditatie [The heart of Buddhist Meditation] (in Dutch). Asoka.
- Polak G (2011). Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology. UMCS.
- Repetti R (2022). Routledge Handbook on the Philosophy of Meditation. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-0005-7574-3.
- Saxe GA, Hébert JR, Carmody JF, Kabat-Zinn J, Rosenzweig PH, Jarzobski D, et al. (December 2001). "Can diet in conjunction with stress reduction affect the rate of increase in prostate specific antigen after biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer?". The Journal of Urology. 166 (6): 2202–2207. PMID 11696736.
- Sharf R (1995). "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience" (PDF). Numen. 42 (3): 228–283. JSTOR 3270219.
- Sharf R (2014). "Mindfulness and Mindlessness in Early Chan". Philosophy East and West. 64 (4): 933–64. S2CID 144208166.
- Siegel DJ (2007). The Mindful Brain: Reflection and Attunement in the Cultivation of Well-Being. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-70470-9.
- Siegel RD (2009). The Mindfulness Solution: Everyday Practices for Everyday Problems. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-294-1.
- Siegel, Ronald D. (2010). The Mindfulness Solution: Everyday Practices for Everyday Problems. The Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-294-1
- Tanay G, Bernstein A (December 2013). "State Mindfulness Scale (SMS): development and initial validation". Psychological Assessment. 25 (4): 1286–1299. S2CID 8659383.
- Teasdale JD, Segal ZV (2007). The Mindful Way Through Depression: Freeing Yourself from Chronic Unhappiness. Guilford Press.
- Vetter T (1988). The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism. BRILL.
- Williams JM, Duggan DS, Crane C, Fennell MJ (February 2006). "Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for prevention of recurrence of suicidal behavior". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 62 (2): 201–210. PMID 16342287.
- Williams P, Tribe A (2000). Buddhist Thought. Routledge.
- Wilson J (2014). Mindful America: the Mutual Transformation of Buddhist Meditation and American Culture. Oxford University Press.
- Zgierska A, Rabago D, Chawla N, Kushner K, Koehler R, Marlatt A (2009). "Mindfulness meditation for substance use disorders: a systematic review". Substance Abuse. 30 (4): 266–294. PMID 19904664.
Web sources
- ^ Moore, Catherine (June 12, 2021). "What Is Mindfulness? Definition + Benefits (Incl. Psychology)". PositivePsychology.com.
- ^ a b c Bhikkhu Bodhi. "The Noble Eightfold Path". Access to Insight. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
- ^ Farias M (June 5, 2015). "Mindfulness Has Lost Its Buddhist Roots, and it may not be doing you good". The Conversation. Retrieved 2020-02-05.
What was once a tool for spiritual exploration has been turned into a panacea for the modern age — a cure-all for common human problems, from stress, to anxiety, to depression. [...] Yet the potential for emotional and psychological disturbance is rarely talked about by mindfulness researchers, the media, or mentioned in training courses. [...] Mindfulness has been separated from its roots, stripped of its ethical and spiritual connotations, and sold to us as a therapeutic tool. [...] Instead, as Giles Coren recently claimed, this technique has been turned into a McMindfulness which only reinforces one's egocentric drives.
- ^ Komaroff A (March 31, 2014). "Does "mindfulness meditation" really help relieve stress and anxiety?". Ask Doctor K. Harvard Health Publications. Archived from the original on 2020-01-30. Retrieved 2014-04-22.
- ^ "The Mindfulness Body Scan".
- ^ "Beginner's Body Scan Meditation". mindful.org. January 27, 2023.
- ^ "Body Scan Meditation (Greater Good in Action)". ggia.berkeley.edu.
- ^ "History of MBSR". University of Massachusetts Medical School. November 17, 2016.
- ^ a b "» Geoffrey Samuel Transcultural Psychiatry". Archived from the original on 2020-11-01. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
- ^ a b "Translator for the Buddha: An Interview with Bhikkhu Bodhi". www.inquiringmind.com. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
- ^ Young, Shinzen (April 2015). "See Hear Feel: An Introduction (Draft)" (PDF). 1.8.
- ^ a b c d "Thesaurus results for 'Mindfulness'". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
- ^ "Component Selection for 'mindfulness'". dico.isc.cnrs.fr. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
- ^ a b c "I found great synonyms for "mindfulness" on the new Thesaurus.com!". www.thesaurus.com. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
- ^ Sister Ayya Khema. "All of Us". Access to Insight. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
- ^ Reginald A. Ray (Summer 2004). "Vipashyana". Buddhadharma: The Practitioner's Quarterly. Shambhala Sun Foundation. Archived from the original on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
- ^ a b Satyadarshin. "Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO): Buddhism and Mindfulness". madhyamavani.fwbo.org. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
- ^ a b Kabat-Zinn, Jon. "Mindfulness Meditation (For Everyday Life)" (PDF).
- ^ Finseth IF. "The Emergence of Transcendentalism". virginia.edu. The University of Virginia. Archived from the original on 2014-11-06. Retrieved 2014-11-09.
- ^ "Stress Reduction Program". University of Massachusetts Worcester Campus Center for Mindfulness. Archived from the original on 2012-04-14.
The Stress Reduction Program, founded by Dr. Jon Kabat-Zinn in 1979...
- ^ Drage M (February 22, 2018). "A history of mindfulness". Wellcome Collection. Retrieved 2019-12-13.
- ^ "What Is Mindfulness?". The Greater Good Science Center. The Greater Good Science Center at the University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2014-04-24.
- ^ Israel I (May 30, 2013). "What's the Difference Between Mindfulness, Mindfulness Meditation and Basic Meditation?". The Huffington Post.
- ^ Bernhard T (June 6, 2011). "6 Benefits of Practicing Mindfulness Outside of Meditation". Psychology Today.
- ^ "Meditation and mindfulness apps continue their surge amid pandemic". TechCrunch. May 28, 2020. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
- ^ "What is Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction?". Mindful Living Programs. Archived from the original on 2006-07-18. Retrieved 2014-04-15.
- ^ a b "What is Mindfulness based Pain Management (MBPM)?". Breathworks CIC. January 22, 2019. Retrieved 2020-05-22.
- ^ Booth R (May 7, 2014). "Politicians joined by Ruby Wax as parliament pauses for meditation". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.
- ^ a b c Safran, Jeremy D. (June 13, 2014). "McMindfulness". www.psychologytoday.com. Retrieved 2015-04-02.
- ^ a b c d e f Purser, Ron; Loy, David (July 1, 2013). "Beyond McMindfulness". HuffPost.
- ^ Caring-Lobel A (July 2, 2013). "Trike Contributing Editor David Loy takes on "McMindfulness"". Tricycle: The Buddhist Review.
Further reading
Origins
- McMahan DL (2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195183276.
- Braun EB (2016). The Birth of Insight. Meditation, Modern Buddhism, and the Burmese Monk Ledi Sayadaw. The University Of Chicago Press.
- Wilson J (2014). Mindful America: Meditation and the Mutual Transformation of Buddhism and American Culture. Oxford University Press.
Buddhism
- Guenther HV, Kawamura LS (1975). Mind in Buddhist Psychology: A Translation of Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan's "The Necklace of Clear Understanding" (Kindle ed.). Dharma Publishing.
- . Buddhist Publication Society.
- Nyanaponika (1968). The Power of Mindfulness. Buddhist Publication Society.
- Hart W (2011). The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation As Taught by S.N. Goenka. Pariyatti.
Psychology
- Benhard JD, Kristeller J, Kabat-Zinn J (September 1988). "Effectiveness of relaxation and visualization techniques as an adjunct to phototherapy and photochemotherapy of psoriasis". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 19 (3): 572–574. PMID 3049703.
- Bowen S, Chawla N, ISBN 978-1-60623-987-2.
- Brantley J (2007). Calming Your Anxious Mind: How Mindfulness & Compassion Can Free You from Anxiety, Fear, & Panic (2nd ed.). New Harbinger. ISBN 978-1-57224-487-0.
- Deckersbach T, Hölzel B, Eisner L, Lazar SW, Nierenberg AA (2014). Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Bipolar Disorder. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-1406-9.
- Didonna F (2008). Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness. Springer Science & Business Media.
- Ie A, Ngnoumen CT, Langer EJ (2014). The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Mindfulness (Two Volumes). John Wiley & Sons.
- Ockene JK, Ockene IS, Kabat-Zinn J, Greene HL, Frid D (1990). "Teaching risk-factor counseling skills to medical students, house staff, and fellows". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 6 (2 Suppl): 35–42. PMID 2383411.
- Ockene JK, Sorensen G, Kabat-Zinn J, Ockene IS, Donnelly G (March 1988). "Benefits and costs of lifestyle change to reduce risk of chronic disease". Preventive Medicine. 17 (2): 224–234. PMID 3047727.
- Orsillo SM, Roemer L (2011). The Mindful Way through Anxiety: Break Free from Chronic Worry and Reclaim Your Life. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-464-8.
- Pollak SM, Pedulla T, Siegel RD (2014). Sitting Together: Essential Skills for Mindfulness-Based Psychotherapy. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-1398-7.
- ISBN 978-1-4625-0750-4.
- ISBN 978-1-4625-0814-3.
- ISBN 978-1-59385-128-6.
Other
- Brahm A (2005). Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-86171-275-5.
- Wherever You Go, There You Are: Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life. Hyperion Books. 2005. ISBN 1401307787.
- Mack P (2020). The Misted Mirror - Mindfulness for Schools and Universities. From the Heart Press.
- McCown D, Micozzi MS (2011). New World Mindfulness: From the Founding Fathers, Emerson, and Thoreau to Your Personal Practice. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co.
- ISBN 978-1572245372.
- ISBN 978-0804141109.
- Weiss A (2004). Beginning Mindfulness: Learning the Way of Awareness. New World Library.
Critical
- Levman B (2017). "Putting smṛti back into sati (Putting remembrance back into mindfulness)". Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. 13: 121–49. ISSN 2047-1076.
- Sharf R (1995). "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience" (PDF). Numen. 42 (3): 228–283. JSTOR 3270219.
- Carrette JR, King R (2005). Selling Spirituality: The Silent Takeover of Religion. Psychology Press.
- Kabat-Zinn J, Williams M (2013). Mindfulness – Diverse perspectives on its meanings, origins and applications. Routledge.
- Thompson, Evan (2020). Why I am Not a Buddhist. Yale University Press.