Ming conquest of Đại Ngu
Ming–Viet War/Ming–Đại Ngu War | |
---|---|
Result |
Ming victory
|
Territorial changes | Ming annexation of Đại Ngu as Jiaozhi |
Zhang Fu
Mu Sheng
Zhu Neng
Cheng Kuan
Hồ Hán Thương (POW)
Hồ Nguyên Trừng (POW)
Lương Nhữ Hốt
Phạm Thế Căng
Nguyễn Phi Khanh (POW)
The Ming invasion of Viet (
A few years prior to the invasion,
Background
During the late 14th-century, the kingdom of
The ruling house of
In 1405,
Preparations
Hồ Quý Ly's defense plan
From 1404,
Chinese preparations
On 11 May (according to Chan) or in the month of July (according to Tsai) 1406, the Yongle Emperor appointed Duke Zhu Neng to lead an invasion with Marquises Zhang Fu and Mu Sheng as second-in-command.[11] Chen Qia was appointed to oversee the supplies, while Huang Fu was appointed to handle political and administrative affairs.[22] On the eve of departure, the Yongle Emperor gave a banquet at the Longjiang naval arsenal, located at the Qinhuai River in Nanjing.[11] The Yongle emperor was highly concerned with this campaign and paid much attention to every detail in the preparation. To withstand Đại Ngu’s firearms (huoqi), he ordered the Ministry of Works to manufacture large, thick, and durable shields. He ordered that the technology of making firearms, including the handgun (shenji chong), should not be leaked to the enemy. Particularly, the "firearm generals" (shenji jiangjun) were ordered to make sure that when their troops withdrew, firearms would "be counted each to its original number and not a single piece be allowed to go."[23]
Huang Fu kept a log to document the military campaign. Sixteen days before the Yongle Emperor gave the banquet at Longjiang, Huang Fu had departed from Nanjing and spend a night at Longjiang, before sailing west on the
Invasion
Early phase
In the winter of 1406, the Ming armies began their invasion.[24] Modern historians estimate that 135,000 troops set off from Guangxi and 80,000 troops set off from Yunnan.[25] Forty batteries or units (dui) were equipped with 3,600 thunderclap bombs (pili pao), 160 "wine-cup muzzle general cannon" (zhankou jiangjun pao), 200 large and 328 small "continuous bullet cannon" (lianzhu pao), 624 handguns (shouba chong), 300 small grenades (xiao feipao), about 6.97 tons of gunpowder, and 1,051,600 or more bullets of approximately 0.8 ounce each. The total weight of the weaponry was 29.4 tons.[21]
On November 19, 1406, Ming troops led by Zhang Fu entered Đại Ngu from Guangxi while those under Mu Sheng marched from Yunnan. Soon afterward, Đại Ngu troops—20,000 at the Ailuu Pass and 30,000 at the Ke-lang Pass—tried to block Zhang Fu’s armies with huochong and other weapons, but they were routed easily.[21] On 24 November 1406, Zhang Fu's forces conquered Cần Tram and several other strongholds. Mu Sheng's forces, who had departed from Yunnan, met up and joined Zhang Fu's forces at Đa Bang castle (northwest to Hanoi).[22] One of the Ming commanders told their soldiers, "This city is what the enemy relies on."[21]
Battle of Đa Bang
On the afternoon of January 19, 1407, the Ming army launched their assault on Đa Bang fortress.[26] Ming troops attacked the fortress from all directions, employing scaling ladders, xianren dong and gunpowder signal lights (yemingguang huoyao).[26] According to the Vietnamese chronicles, the Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư, which was complied in 1479, "the dead bodies [of the Ming soldiers] piled up as high as the city wall, but [the Ming troops] still kept climbing and fighting; nobody dared to stop."[27] When the Ming troops climbed onto the town wall, the alarmed and bewildered Vietnamese defenders could only shoot a few arrows and fire lances. After having successfully entered the city, the Ming soldiers were confronted by Vietnamese war elephants and numerous infantry.[26] Ming troops covered their horses with lion masks to scare the elephants. Ming generals Luo Wen and Cheng Kuan ordered the firearm regiments to shoot chong and fire lance at the elephants.[26] The elephants all trembled with fear and were wounded by the gun arrows, causing the Vietnamese army to panic.[27] The Ming advanced on their horses, the foot soldiers shot a large number of arrows, handguns, and cannons (pao),[28] and pursued the disarrayed Vietnamese force into the town as they forgot to close the town's gate. As a result the battle lasted for two days, as the town of Đa Bang fell, and the defense line along the Red River collapsed.[26]
In the next day, follow the fall of Đa Bang, Zhang Fu's forces easily captured the city of
Prominent families from the Red River Delta, led by Mạc Thúy and his brothers (descendants of Mạc Đĩnh Chi), pledged their allegiance to the Ming.[25] By late January 1407, the Ming armies had taken control of the Red River Delta.[22]
Vietnamese defeat
On February 21, Hồ Nguyên Trừng (son of Hồ Quý Ly), commanding 500 ships, launched an counterattack on the Ming forces on the Thái Bình River.[26] The Chinese mobilized their navy and foot soldiers, employed "magic handgun/cannon" and "bowl-sized muzzle cannon", destroyed Hồ Nguyên Trừng's fleet, and killed more than ten thousand Vietnamese soldiers. One Chinese source describes the scene as one in which the firing of "firearms [was] like flying stars and lightning."[29] In February alone, the Ming claimed 37,390 "enemy heads."[19] On March 18, 1407, in the Phung Hoa prefecture, Ming troops used da jiangjun chong ("great general cannon") to smash many enemy ships.[29]
On May 4, 1407, a major battle took place at the
By early June 1407, Hồ Quý Ly was forced to flee southwards as he had lost the support of his people and was being pursued by the Ming forces. After his initial campaign in Northern Vietnam, Zhang Fu sent a letter urging the Chinese court to annex Đại Việt and rule it as a province of China:
Your servant Zhang Fu has reviewed the annals. Annan was once Jiaozhou. In the Han and Tang it could only be loosely governed by China, and in the Song and Yuan it was again raided and humiliated. Exceed their rightful place, they are set in their evil ways of usurpation and revolt. Although we sent troops to punish them, they alternatively rebel and come to allegiance. It is intolerable to heaven and earth, infuriating to humans and spirits... Several hundred kinds of tattoo-faced and shrike-tongued people have ascended to an earthly paradise. Several thousand of li of fish and salt producing land have all entered the map. We have recovered our ancient territory and propagated Zhonghua's system of propriety.[32]
— Zhang Fu
Great slaughter accompanied the Ming campaign. In the final victory announcements, the Chinese commanders claimed that "seven million" of the Vietnamese forces had been killed.[19]
Aftermath
On 5 October 1407, the prisoners were charged with high treason by the Ming imperial court.[33] The Yongle Emperor asked them whether they had killed the former king and had usurped the throne of the Trần royal family, but he received no answer in return. Most of the prisoners were either imprisoned or executed.[33]
Hồ Quý Ly and his son Hồ Hán Thương were imprisoned, but there is no known record of their eventual fates thereafter.[25][a] The oldest son Hồ Nguyên Trừng, known in Chinese as Li Cheng, became a weapon engineer near the Chinese capital Beijing, manufactured Dai Viet-style firearms for the Chinese to use against the Mongols.[34][35] In 1442, he wrote a memoir titled Nam Ông mộng lục (Chinese: 南翁夢錄) about his homeland.[25]
In July 1407,
The Chinese administration conscripted forced labourers and imposed heavy taxes on everything from rice fields to
See also
- 1075–1077 Song–Dai Viet War
- 1789 Qing intervention in Đại Việt
- 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War
Notes
- ^ Kathlene Baldanza indicates that Ho Quy Ly and some his most important advisers, his second son–king Ho Han Thuong, his first son–prince Ho Nguyen Trung, several grandsons (including two of Ho Nguyen Trung's son), and other relatives, all were captured as prisoners to Nanjing. When the Ming asked Ho Quy Ly to explain his rebellious behavior, Ho Quy Ly remained silent. The Ming Shilu claims that Ho Quy Ly and Ho Han Thuong were sent to prison and the rest were pardoned; other accounts claimed that Ho Quy Ly was ultimately executed or be sent to be a foot soldier in Guangxi. Overall, Ho Quy Ly's death still remains unclear.
- John Miksicsays Nguyen An was brought to China as a prisoner after the 1407 war.
- ^ Henri Cordier states that "Regarding the tattooed inhabitants of Caugigu, let it be remembered that tattooing existed in Annam till it was prohibited by the Chinese during the occupation of Tung-king at the beginning of the 15th century."
References
- ^ a b Dutton 2012, p. 31.
- ^ a b c Dardess 2012, p. 4.
- ^ Anderson 2020, p. 101.
- ^ Andrade 2019, p. 77.
- ISBN 7300034020.
- ^ 《平定交南錄》,(明)丘浚著
- ^ a b Andrade 2019, p. 76.
- ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 182.
- ^ a b Kiernan 2019, p. 183.
- ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 184.
- ^ a b c d e f g Tsai 2011, p. 179.
- ^ Wang 1998, p. 304.
- ^ Wang 1998, p. 316.
- ^ a b Chan 2008, p. 229.
- ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 193.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Chan 2008, p. 230.
- ^ a b Dreyer 1982, pp. 207–208.
- ^ Kyong-McClain & Du 2013, p. 57.
- ^ a b c Wade 2014, p. 70.
- ^ a b c Taylor 2013, p. 173.
- ^ a b c d Sun 2006, p. 78.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Tsai 2011, p. 180.
- ^ Sun 2006, p. 77.
- ^ a b Dreyer 1982, p. 208.
- ^ a b c d e f Taylor 2013, p. 174.
- ^ a b c d e f Sun 2006, p. 79.
- ^ a b c d Andrade 2019, p. 78.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Miksic & Yian 2016, p. 524.
- ^ a b c d Sun 2006, p. 80.
- ^ Sun 2006, p. 83.
- ^ Baldanza 2016, p. 66.
- ^ Baldanza 2016, pp. 68–69.
- ^ a b c d e Tsai 2011, p. 181.
- ^ Sun 2006, p. 92.
- ^ Andrade 2019, p. 78–79.
- ^ Wade 2014, p. 71.
- ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 194.
- ^ a b Chan 2008, p. 231.
- ^ Anderson 2020, p. 97.
Bibliography
- Anderson, James A. (2020), "The Ming invasion of Vietnam, 1407–1427", in Kang, David C.; Haggard, Stephan (eds.), East Asia in the World: Twelve Events That Shaped the Modern International Order, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 97–107, ISBN 978-1-108-47987-5
- ISBN 978-1-000-13466-7
- Baldanza, Kathlene (2016). Ming China and Vietnam: Negotiating Borders in Early Modern Asia. Cambridge University Press.
- Chan, Hok-lam (2008), "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsiian-te reigns, 1399 – 1435", in Twitchett, Denis Crispin; Fairbank, John K. (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 182–284
- Dardess, John W. (2012). Ming China, 1368–1644: A concise history of a resilient empire. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-0491-1.
- Dreyer, Edward L. (1982). Early Ming China: A political history, 1355–1435. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1105-4.
- Dutton, George E. (2012), Sources of Vietnamese Tradition, Columbia University Press
- Kiernan, Ben (2019). Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present. ISBN 978-0-190-05379-6.
- Kyong-McClain, Jeff; Du, Yongtao (2013). Chinese History in Geographical Perspective. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7391-7230-8.
- ISBN 978-0415735544.
- Sun, Laichen (2006), "Chinese Gunpowder Technology and Đại Việt, ca. 1390–1497", in Reid, Anthony; Tran, Nhung Tuyet (eds.), Viet Nam: Borderless Histories, University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 72–120, ISBN 978-1-316-44504-4
- Taylor, K.W. (2013). A History of the Vietnamese. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87586-8.
- Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (2011). Perpetual happiness: The Ming emperor Yongle. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98109-3.
- Wade, Geoff (2014), "The "native office" system: A Chinese mechanism for southern territorial expansion over two millennia", in Wade, Geoff (ed.), Asian Expansions: The Historical Experiences of Polity Expansion in Asia, Taylor & Francis, pp. 69–91, ISBN 9781135043537
- Wang, Gungwu (1998), "Ming foreign relations: Southeast Asia", in Twitchett, Denis Crispin; Fairbank, John K. (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 301–332, ISBN 0-521-24333-5
Further reading
- Buttinger, Joseph (1967). Vietnam: a Dragon Embattled: Vietnam at war. Praeger.m
- Hall, Daniel George Edward (1981), History of South East Asia, Macmillan Education, Limited, ISBN 978-1-349-16521-6
- Hsu, Cho-yun (2012). China: A New Cultural History. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-52818-4.
- Shiro, Momoki (2004). "Great Viet". Southeast Asia. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. ISBN 9781576077702.
- Wade, Geoff; Sun, Laichen (2010). Southeast Asia in the Fifteenth Century: The China Factor. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-448-7.
- Whitmore, John K. (1985). Vietnam, Hồ Quý Ly, and the Ming (1371-1421). Yale Center for International and Area Studies.
- Woodside, Alexander (2009). Lost Modernities: China, Vietnam, Korea, and the Hazards of World History. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67404-534-7.