Mining in Cornwall and Devon
Mining in Cornwall and Devon, in the
Historically, tin and copper as well as a few other metals (e.g.
Geology
The
Over the years, many other metals (e.g.
History
Cornwall and Devon provided most of the United Kingdom's tin, copper, and arsenic until the 20th century. Originally tin was found as
Prehistoric period
Stone Age and early Bronze Age
Tin is one of the earliest metals to have been exploited in Britain. Chalcolithic metal workers discovered that by putting a small proportion of tin (5 – 20%) in molten copper, the alloy bronze was produced. The alloy is harder than copper. The oldest production of tin-bronze is in Anatolia (modern day Turkey) about 3500 BC, but exploitation of the tin resources in Britain is believed to have started before 2000 BC,[12] with a thriving tin trade developing with the civilisations of the Mediterranean. The strategic importance of tin in forging bronze weapons brought the south west of Britain into the Mediterranean economy at an early date. Later tin was also used in the production of pewter.
Mining in Cornwall has existed from the early Bronze Age Britain around 2000 BC.[11][13]
Traditionally, Cornwall was thought to have been visited by
Britain is one of the places proposed for the Cassiterides, that is "Tin Islands", first mentioned by Herodotus.[18]
The tin content of the bronze from the
Originally it is likely that alluvial deposits in the gravels of streams were exploited, but later underground mining took root. Shallow cuttings were then used to extract ore.
Expansion of trade
As demand for bronze grew in the Middle East, the accessible local supplies of tin ore (cassiterite) were exhausted and searches for new supplies were made over all the known world, including Britain. Control of the tin trade seems to have been in
William Camden, in his
There is isotopic evidence to support that tin ingots found off the coast of Haifa, Israel were supplied from Cornwall.[21][22]
Diodorus Siculus's account
In his Bibliotheca historica, written in the 1st century BC, Diodorus Siculus described ancient tin mining in Britain. "They that inhabit the British promontory of Belerion by reason of their converse with strangers are more civilised and courteous to strangers than the rest are. These are the people that prepare the tin, which with a great deal of care and labour, they dig out of the ground, and that being done the metal is mixed with some veins of earth out of which they melt the metal and refine it. Then they cast it into regular blocks and carry it to a certain island near at hand called Ictis for at low tide, all being dry between there and the island, tin in large quantities is brought over in carts."
Pliny, whose text has survived in eroded condition, quotes
Legend of Joseph of Arimathea
Iron Age archaeology
There are few remains of prehistoric tin mining in Cornwall or Devon, probably because later workings have destroyed early ones. However, shallow cuttings used for extracting ore can be seen in some places such as Challacombe Down, Dartmoor. There are a few stone hammers, such as those in the Zennor Wayside Museum.[30] It may well be that mining was mostly undertaken with shovels, antler picks, and wooden wedges. An excavation at Dean Moor on Dartmoor, at a site dated at 1400–900 BC from pottery, yielded a pebble of tin ore and tin slag.[26] Rocks were used for crushing the ore and stones for this were found at Crift Farm.[31] There have been finds of tin slag on the floors of Bronze Age houses,[32] for example at Trevisker. Tin slag was found at Caerloges with a dagger of the Camerton-Snowhill type.
In the Iron Age bronze continued to be used for ornaments though not for tools and weapons, so tin extraction seems to have continued. An ingot from Castle Dore is probably of Iron Age date.
Roman and Post-Roman periods
The tin resources are said to have been a reason the Romans invaded Britain,[33] but they had control of mines in Spain and Brittany in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. Later production in Spain was curtailed, probably by raiding. Production in Britain increased in the 3rd century, for use in coinage, and there was extensive use of tin in pewter manufacture, at Camerton in Somerset for example. Cornwall and West Devon were less Romanised than many other parts of Britain, and tin mining may have been in local hands, with tin purchased by the imperial authority. A possible official stamp has been identified on the Carnington tin ingot.[34] A number of tin ingots have been found in Roman contexts, such as 42 found in a wreck at Bigbury Bay in 1991–92.[35][36]
A site in the Erme Valley, Devon, shows sediment aggregation in late Roman and Post-Roman times due to tin mining on Dartmoor.[37] There is a peak in activity between the 4th and 7th centuries. Tin slag at Week Ford in Devon has been dated to 570–890 AD.[38]
Medieval and modern mining
Middle Ages
There is no record of tin mining in
Following the transfer of power to the Norman lord
In 1305 King Edward I established separate stannaries for Devon and Cornwall. Water was used to operate stamps to crush the ore, the lighter waste being washed away. The mineral "black tin" was placed in furnaces and layered with peat. The molten metal was poured into granite moulds which produced ingots of tin. These were taken on pack horses to the stannary towns for assaying. Usable deposits in Devon became worked out, and so Cornwall became the centre of tin production. In 1337 Cornish tin production was 650 tons, but in 1335[clarification needed] it had been reduced to 250 tons by the Black Death. In 1400 Cornish production rose to 800 tons. The production in Devon was only 25% of that of Cornwall in 1450–1470.
The tin works of Devon and Cornwall were of such importance that the medieval kings established
Under the stannary system, tin was brought to coinage towns to be coined in coinage halls. The stannary towns in Cornwall were originally: Helston, Liskeard, Truro, Lostwithial and later Penzance. In Devon, the coinage towns were: Ashburton, Plympton, Chagford and Tavistock.
The
Quarrying was of very limited importance in medieval Cornwall. Stone for church building was very rarely imported from outside the county: they used whatever stone could be found within a short distance. For some ornamental features such as doorways, pillars and fonts good use was made of varieties of elvan (e.g. Polyphant and Catacleuze). The granite was not quarried but collected from the moorlands and worked on site. Quarrying of slate developed in north Cornwall in the later Middle Ages and later developed in early modern times into larger undertakings.[42]
Early modern period
After the 1540s, Cornwall's production increased rapidly and Devon's production was only about 10–11% of that of Cornwall. From the mid-16th century the Devon stannaries generated very little income for the Crown, and they were sidelined under the
A second tin boom came around the 16th century when open cast mining was used. German miners who had knowledge of the techniques were employed. In 1689, Thomas Epsley, a Somerset man, developed a method to blast the very hard granite rock loose, using gunpowder with quill fuses. It revolutionised hard rock mining. Six days' work with a pick could be accomplished with one blast.[43] There was a third boom in the 18th century when shafts were dug to extract the ore.
Later modern period
In the 19th century Cornish mining reached its zenith, before foreign competition depressed the price of copper, and later tin, to a level that made the extraction of Cornish ore unprofitable. The areas of Cornwall around Gwennap and St Day and on the coast around Porthtowan were among the richest mining areas in the world. At its height the Cornish tin mining industry had around 600 steam engines working to pump out the mines (many mines reached under the sea and some went down to great depths). Adventurers put up the capital, hoping that the mine would return them a profit, but the outcomes were very uncertain.[citation needed]
The last Cornish Stannary Parliament was held at Hingston Down in 1753, and the Devon Stannary Parliament last met in 1748. The Stannary Courts of Devon and Cornwall were combined in 1855 and their powers transferred to local authorities in 1896.
By the middle and late 19th century, Cornish mining was in decline, and many Cornish miners emigrated to developing mining districts overseas, where their skills were in demand: these included South Africa, Australia and North America. Cornish miners became dominant in the 1850s in the iron and copper districts of northern Michigan in the United States, as well as in many other mining districts. In the first six months of 1875, over 10,000 miners left Cornwall to find work overseas.
20th century and after
During the 20th century, various ores were briefly profitable, and mines were reopened, but today none remain. Dolcoath mine (Cornish for Old Ground),[citation needed] the 'Queen of Cornish Mines', was 3,500 feet (1,100 m) deep, and was for many years the deepest mine in the world,[citation needed] not to mention one of the oldest before its closure in 1921. The last working tin mine in Europe was South Crofty, near Camborne, until its closure in March 1998. After an attempt was made to reopen it, it was abandoned. There were local media reports in September 2006 that South Crofty was being considered for re-opening as the price of tin had soared, but the site was subject to a compulsory purchase order (October 2006).[citation needed] On the wall outside the gate is some graffiti dating from 1999:
Cornish lads are fishermen and Cornish lads are miners too.
But when the fish and tin are gone, what are the Cornish boys to do?
(This is from the chorus of the song 'Cornish Lads' by Cornish singer/songwriter Roger Bryant, written at the time of the closure of Geevor Mine. See CD "The Writing's on the Wall" by Roger Bryant. Other recordings by Jinks' Stack and Mike Nicholson.)
The collapse of the
In 1992, Geevor mine was acquired by Cornwall County Council as a heritage museum, which is now run by Pendeen Community Heritage. Both Geevor Tin Mine and Morwellham Quay have been selected as "anchor points" on the European Route of Industrial Heritage.[47]
The extraction of
In 2017, plans were reported to extract lithium reserves from beneath Cornwall by Cornish Lithium, who had signed agreements to develop potential deposits.[49]
In April 2019, a British-based company, MetAmpère Limited, drilled six lithium exploration holes in the UK at a site near St Austell.[50] MetAmpère has successfully extracted lithium from hard rock at a laboratory scale, resulting in plans for a further 20 drill holes.[51] In 2021, a new mine was extracting battery-grade lithium carbonate.[2]
Disasters
In the
Main mining areas
Cornwall
- Penwith
- Camborne,[55] Redruth and Illogan
- Gwennap and the Carnon Valley in west Cornwall
- Wendron area in Kerrier
- St Agnes and Porthtowan
- North Cornwall (a few mines but no tin)
- A large area bounded by Callingtonin mid and east Cornwall
River Tamar
Devon
- Stannary Courtfor Dartmoor
- Bere Ferrers – a unique Crown-operated medieval silver (and lead) mine[41]
- Combe Martin – lead/silver deposits[58]
- Exmoor and Brendon Hills – iron lead, silver, copper[58]
- West Devon
- Bampfylde Mine, North Molton[41]
- Blackdown Hills – copper deposits[41]
Methods and processing
See
Study and education
The Royal Geological Society of Cornwall was founded in 1814[59] to promote the study of the geology of Cornwall, and is the second oldest geological society in the world.[60] The Cornish Institute of Engineers was begun by mechanical engineers. Mining is an important area in which it is active.
Camborne School of Mines
Because of the importance of metal mining to the Cornish economy, the Camborne School of Mines (CSM), founded in 1888, developed as the only specialist hard rock education establishment in the United Kingdom. It continues to teach mining as well as many other earth-related subjects (e.g. engineering geology) relevant to the Cornish economy.
CSM now forms part of the
" in its name. CSM graduates are to be found working in the mining industry all over the world.Terminology and symbolism
Several Cornish mining words are still in use in English language mining terminology, such as costean, gunnies, vug,[61] kibbal, gossan, mundic and kieve.[62]
Fish, tin, and copper together are sometimes used as a symbol of Cornwall because they show the three main traditional industries of Cornwall. Tin has a special place in the Cornish culture, the Stannary Parliament, and 'Cornish pennies' are a testament to the former power of the Cornish tin industry. Cornish tin is highly prized for jewellery, often of mine engines or Celtic designs.
The houses at Penair School are named after four notable tin mines. Among the pubs whose names refer to tin mining are the Tinner's Arms in Zennor and the former Jolly Tinners pub in St Hilary. The pub sign at Zennor pictures a tin miner at work, testimony to its origins.[63] The Jolly Tinners building at St Hilary was at one time used to accommodate the St Hilary Children's Home.[64][65]
Three hares
The
Tinners' Rabbits is the name of a dance of many forms involving use of sticks and rotation of three, six or nine dancers.[68][69]
World Heritage Site
UNESCO World Heritage Site | |
---|---|
Location | Cornwall and West Devon, United Kingdom |
Criteria | Cultural: (ii)(iii)(iv) |
Reference | 1215 |
Inscription | 2006 (30th Session) |
Area | 19,719 ha (48,730 acres) |
In 1999, the
In 2014, work was completed to preserve the iconic New Cooks Kitchen Headframe at South Crofty tin mine.[71] at an approximate cost of £650,000.
Individual mines
Hemerdon Mine
South Crofty Mine
In November 2007 it was announced that South Crofty mine, near Camborne, may restart production in 2009. When it closed in 1998 it was Europe's last tin mine. Its owners Baseresult Holdings Ltd, which bought the mine in 2001, have created a new company, Western United Mines Limited (WUM), to operate it and has said it will be spending in excess of £50m on restarting the mine. The company claims that rising tin prices had given the mine, first opened in the late 16th century, another 80 years of life. More than £3.5m will be spent during the next seven months on continuing the mine development.
Crofty Developments, a partner of the new company, still has to resolve a row with the
Partial list of Cornish mines
Mine | Opened | Closed | Operated by | Product | Production |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ale & Cakes | 18th century | 1870 | United Mines (1780-1857)
Clifford Amalgamated Mines (1857-1870) |
Tin & Copper | |
Alfred Consols | 1801 | 1964 | Copper, Tin & Lead | 175,000 Tonnes of Copper | |
Balleswidden | 1832 | 1877 | Tin | ||
Basset & Grylls | 1858 | 1913 | Tin | ||
Belowda | 1872 | 1902 | Tin | ||
Binner Downs | 1758 | 1830s | Copper, Iron, & Tin | 4,500 tonnes per year
100 tonnes of Iron Ore | |
Blencowe Consols | Tin | ||||
Blue Hills | 1897 | Tin | |||
Boiling Well | 1815 | 1865 | Copper, Lead, Silver, Zinc | 2,900 tonnes of Copper 410 tonnes of Lead 54 tonnes of Zinc 5,900 ounces of Silver | |
Boscaswell Downs | 1850s | Tin & Copper | |||
Boscawen Mine | 18th century | Copper, Tin & Zinc | |||
Boscean Mine | 1584 | ? | Tin | ||
Bosorne | 1820 | Tin | |||
Boswedden | Tin & Copper | ||||
Botallack Mine | 1721 | 1914 | Stephen Harvey James (1835–1870) Botallack Mines, Limited (1906–) |
Tin arsenic copper |
|
Budnick Consols | 1855 | 1912 | Lead, Tin & Zinc | ||
Buttern Hill | Tin & Wolfram | ||||
Cape Cornwall Mine | 1839 | 1875 | St Just Consolidated Tin and Copper Mining Company | Tin copper |
|
Carnon Mine | 1824 | 1830 | Tin | ||
Consolidated Mines | 1782 | 1857 | copper | ||
Ding Dong mines | c. 17th century | 1879 | Tin | ||
Dolcoath mine | 1720 | 1920 | Tin copper |
||
East Wheal Rose | ? | 1886 | lead | ||
Geevor Tin Mine | 1780 | 1991 | Geevor Tin Mines Ltd | Tin | |
Great North Downs | 18th century | 1846 | Tin Arsenic Copper |
||
Great Wheal Busy | 1720 | 1909 | copper arsenic Tin |
100,000 tons | |
Killifreth Mine | 1927 | copper arsenic tin |
|||
King Edward Mine | Camborne School of Mines (1890–) | Tin | |||
Levant Tin Mine[76] | 1748 | 1930 | Levant Mining Company (1820–1930) National Trust (1967–) |
Copper Tin Arsenic |
|
Mount Wellington Tin Mine | 1976 | 1991 | Kensa Heat Pumps (2001–) | Tin | |
Poldark Mine (Wheal Roots) | 1720 | 1780 | Tin | ||
South Crofty | 1590s | 1998 | South Crofty Limited (1906–1967) Siamese Tin Syndicate Ltd (1967–1982) Rio Tinto (1982–1988)Carnon Holdings Limited (1988–1994) Crew Natural Resources of Canada (1994–2001) Base Result (2001-2007) Western United Mines Limited (2007-2011) Celeste Copper Corporation (2011-2016) Strongbow Minerals Limited 2016 - |
Tin | 400,000 tonnes |
Wheal Briggan | ? | ? | Copper | ||
Wheal Boys | ? | ? | Tin Copper |
||
Wheal Castle | ? | ? | Tin & Copper | ||
Wheal Drea | ? | ? | Tin | ||
Wheal Edward | ? | ? | Tin & Copper | ||
Wheal Godolphin | c. 16th century | 1930 | Godolphin Family | Tin | |
Wheal Gorland | 1792 | 1909 | St Day United Edgar Allen and Company (1906-1909) |
Arsenic Copper Tin Tungsten |
|
Wheal Jane | 1750 | 1992 | Falmouth Consolidated Mines (1906–1915) Consolidated Gold Fields (1960–1969) Rio Tinto Group (1969–1980) management consortium (1970–) |
Tin Silver Zinc |
|
Wheal Owles | 1700 | 1893 | Tin & Copper | ||
Wheal Peevor | 1701 | 1889 | Tin & Copper | ||
Wheal Plenty | ? | ? | Copper | ||
Wheal Prosper | 1860 | 1866 | Tin & Copper | ||
Wheal Rose | ? | ? | Tin & Copper | ||
Wheal Trewavas | 1834 | 1846 | Tin & Copper | ||
Wheal Vor | c. 16th century | 1910 | Tin & Copper |
Railways
Note: The term "mineral railway" is usually understood to mean a railway operated in direct association with a single mine or a group of mines. An ordinary railway might convey the traffic of any consignor. However the terminology is not exact.
Cornwall Minerals Railway
The Cornwall Minerals Railway opened in 1874, connecting harbours at Fowey and Newquay and sites of mineral extraction in the area between them, in particular in the Bugle and St Dennis areas. The railway absorbed and extended several existing short mineral lines.
East Cornwall Mineral Railway
The ECMR connected copper extractive industries in the Kit Hill area to a quay at Calstock on the Tamar.
Hayle Railway
The Hayle Railway opened in 1837, serving engineering works and copper quays at Hayle and the copper mines of Redruth and Camborne.[77]
List of mineral railways in Cornwall
Name | Opened | Closed | Gauge | Location | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Basset Mines Tramway[78] | before 1907 | 1918 | 20 in (508 mm) | Redruth | Steam locomotive worked line connecting the West Basset Mine and the stamps at Carnkie
|
Botallack Mine[78] | before 1864 | 800 mm (2 ft 7+1⁄2 in) | St Just | 300-yard surface line and cliff-side inclines into the mine. | |
Camborne Mines Ltd. Pendarves Mine[79] | after 1979 | 600 mm (1 ft 11+5⁄8 in) | Camborne | Underground railway serving the Pendarves tin mine | |
Cornwall Tin and Mining Corporation Mount Wellington Mine[79] | by 1979 | 2 ft (610 mm) | Twelveheads | Underground Tin mine | |
Wheal Concord mine[80]
|
after 1987 | 2 ft (610 mm) | Blackwater | Underground mine railway using battery electric locomotives | |
Geevor Tin Mines Ltd. Pendeen Mine[78][79] | 1911 | 1991 | 18 in (457 mm) | St Just | Extensive underground tin mine railway. Part of the site, with reinstated tramway, has been reopened as the Geevor Tin Mines Museum. |
Rosevale Historical Mining Company[78] | 1974 | present | 2 ft (610 mm) and 18 in (457 mm) | Zennor | Newly re-opened tin mine using battery-electric locomotives |
South Crofty Mine[78][79] | 1900 | 1998 | 1 ft 10 in (559 mm) and 18 in (457 mm) | Camborne | Extensive tin mine with internal railway. The mine was re-opened in 2001 although currently without the use of railway transport. |
Wheal Jane Ltd. Clemo's Shaft[79] | 1965 | 1992 | 2 ft (610 mm) | Baldhu | Locomotive-worked Cornish tin mine. |
Wheal Pendarves Ltd. Wheal Pendarves mine[80] | after 1987 | 600 mm (1 ft 11+5⁄8 in) | Camborne | Locomotive-worked Cornish tin mine. |
Mineral statistics
Year | White Tin | Black Tin | Tin | Copper Ore | Copper Metal | Lead Ore | Silver | Zinc | Uranium | Tungsten | Arsenic |
1845 | 149834 | 6063 | |||||||||
1846 | 132444 | 4933 | |||||||||
1847 | 137665 | 7304 | |||||||||
1848 | 10176 | 127226 | 6614 | ||||||||
1849 | 10719 | 126650 | 6773 | ||||||||
1850 | 10383 | 134020 | 6783 | ||||||||
1851 | 9455 | 127285 | 6709 | 9.27125 | |||||||
1852 | 9674 | 165593 | 11777 | 6220 | 10.667125 | ||||||
1853 | 5763 | 8866 | 181944 | 11914 | 4690 | 9.6875 | |||||
1854 | 5947 | 8747 | 184858 | 11979 | 5005 | 9.34259375 | 477 | ||||
1855 | 6000 | 8947 | 161576 | 10520 | 5882 | 9.41425 | 443 | ||||
1856 | 6177 | 9350 | 163980 | 10520 | 6597 | 10.184125 | 1 | 514 | |||
1857 | 6582 | 9783 | 152729 | 9869 | 6036 | 8.57778125 | 47 | ||||
1858 | 6920 | 10618 | 147330 | 9727 | 5437 | 8.64234375 | 396 | ||||
1859 | 7100 | 10670 | 143238 | 9628 | 4986 | 8.83871875 | 0.01 | 27 | 445 | ||
1860 | 695 | 10426 | 145359 | 9530 | 4243 | 7.30675 | 19 | 515 | |||
1861 | 7450 | 11640 | 143119 | 9169 | 4229 | 6.82909375 | 7 | 539 | |||
1862 | 8476 | 14127 | 141800 | 9063 | 4119 | 7.65396875 | 12 | 901 | |||
1863 | 10006 | 15157 | 129229 | 8411 | 4271 | 7.08340625 | 13 | 721 | |||
1864 | 10108 | 15211 | 127633 | 7964 | 3539 | 6.6785 | 2 | 633 | |||
1865 | 10039 | 15686 | 121253 | 7413 | 4296 | 7.766375 | 2 | 827 | |||
1866 | 9990 | 15080 | 103670 | 6551 | 4351 | 6.50734375 | 1117 | ||||
1867 | 8700 | 13649 | 88660 | 5995 | 6481 | 10.251375 | 11 | 1200 | |||
1868 | 9300 | 13953 | 86722 | 5726 | 6310 | 10.7124375 | 9 | 1267 | |||
1869 | 9760 | 14725 | 71790 | 5144 | 6775 | 10.72346875 | 25 | 1189 | |||
1870 | 10200 | 15234 | 56526 | 4148 | 6360 | 9.89846875 | 51 | 1813 | |||
1871 | 10900 | 16272 | 46766 | 3340 | 5673 | 8.78528125 | 20 | 4148 | |||
1872 | 9560 | 14266 | 41902 | 2944 | 4099 | 6.8156875 | 88 | 2950 | |||
1873 | 9972 | 14885 | 40285 | 2973 | 2923 | 4.25371875 | 50 | 3480 | |||
1874 | 9942 | 14039 | 40455 | 2771 | 2337 | 2.84728125 | 33 | 2286 | |||
1875 | 9614 | 13995 | 49393 | 2698 | 1932 | 0.94446875 | 46 | 2412 | |||
1876 | 8500 | 13688 | 43016 | 3034 | 2070 | 1.360625 | 23 | 2557 | |||
1877 | 9500 | 14142 | 39225 | 2938 | 1674 | 0.87446875 | 0.1 | 15 | 1718 | ||
1878 | 10106 | 15045 | 36871 | 2903 | 1022 | 0.6169375 | 0.4 | 10 | 1843 | ||
1879 | 9532 | 14665 | 30371 | 2342 | 545 | 0.3546875 | 13 | 1659 | |||
1880 | 8918 | 13737 | 26737 | 2004 | 570 | 0.3755 | 1 | 2044 | |||
1881 | 8615 | 12898 | 24510 | 1881 | 409 | 0.45175 | 3508 | 54 | 2775 | ||
1882 | 9300 | 14170 | 25641 | 1886 | 454 | 0.36015625 | 2190 | 58 | 3473 | ||
1883 | 9262 | 14399 | 23250 | 1362 | 588 | 0.29515625 | 627 | 111 | 3380 | ||
1884 | 9559 | 15091 | 21539 | 1792 | 352 | 0.15625 | 352 | 64 | 3347 | ||
1885 | 9296 | 14323 | 19734 | 1578 | 160 | 0.078125 | 281 | 374 | 3889 | ||
1886 | 9241 | 14124 | 7541 | 680 | 168 | 0.06875 | 263 | 151 | 1791 | ||
1887 | 9215 | 14083 | 3415 | 358 | 0 | 0 | 228 | 55 | 1661 | ||
1888 | 9184 | 14282 | 6838 | 688 | 0 | 0 | 64 | 62 | 1584 | ||
1889 | 8877 | 13756 | 4959 | 496 | 0 | 0 | 60 | 0.5 | 1927 | ||
1890 | 9574 | 14868 | 5271 | 375 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 22 | 104 | 3143 | |
1891 | 9324 | 14444 | 4290 | 305 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 31 | 138 | 3048 | |
1892 | 9205 | 14260 | 2813 | 200 | 11 | 0 | 6 | 37 | 125 | 2567 | |
1893 | 8803 | 13637 | 2673 | 190 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 25 | 22 | 1751 | |
1894 | 8307 | 12880 | 3362 | 239 | 0 | 0 | 27 | 19 | 0 | 1900 | |
1895 | 6627 | 10582 | 5504 | 391 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 40 | 0 | 1821 | |
1896 | 4834 | 7657 | 5616 | 399 | 0 | 0 | 25 | 35 | 43 | 1366 | |
1897 | 4452 | 7120 | 4140 | 294 | 0 | 0 | 26 | 30 | 125 | 1014 | |
1898 | 4647 | 7378 | 5293 | 376 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 26 | 326 | 1062 | |
1899 | 4011 | 6389 | 5172 | 367 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 7 | 94 | 1361 | |
1900 | 4263 | 6792 | 5926 | 462 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 41 | 8 | 1160 | |
1901 | 4594 | 7278 | 4251 | 332 | 0 | 0 | 92 | 79 | 21 | 1258 | |
1902 | 4387 | 7552 | 4547 | 318 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 52 | 10 | 1029 | |
1903 | 4265 | 7354 | 5351 | 401 | 0 | 0.0073125 | 4 | 6 | 269 | 690 | |
1904 | 4126 | 6733 | 4433 | 347 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 161 | 827 | |
1905 | 4451 | 7174 | 4651 | 358 | 134 | 0.248 | 1 | 103 | 167 | 1523 | |
1906 | 4496 | 7114 | 3053 | 316 | 112 | 0.21875 | 8 | 11 | 253 | 1599 | |
1907 | 4340 | 6986 | 2802 | 310 | 106 | 0.225 | 158 | 71 | 259 | 1368 | |
1908 | 4909 | 7816 | 1556 | 152 | 47 | 0.10059375 | 17 | 71 | 224 | 1409 | |
1909 | 5108 | 8166 | 1580 | 142 | 0 | 0 | 321 | 6 | 343 | 1817 | |
1910 | 4734 | 7483 | 870 | 71 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 76 | 259 | 1817 | |
1911 | 4817 | 7665 | 988 | 94 | 2 | 0 | 70 | 67 | 246 | 1912 | |
1912 | 5181 | 8064 | 590 | 99 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 42 | 189 | 2011 | |
1913 | 5220 | 8257 | 421 | 58 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 95 | 183 | 1449 | |
1914 | 4988 | 7987 | 500 | 50 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 344 | 206 | 1706 | |
1915 | 6325 | 461 | 0 | 82 | 314 | 2179 | |||||
1916 | 6068 | 605 | 0 | 51 | 151 | 2256 | |||||
1917 | 5231 | 617 | 0 | 13 | 205 | 2083 | |||||
1918 | 5340 | 619 | 0 | 220 | 1790 | ||||||
1919 | 5128 | 63 | 0 | 166 | 2093 | ||||||
1920 | 4832 | 3100 | 81 | 0 | 60 | 91 | 1752 | ||||
1921 | 700 | ||||||||||
1922 | 3400 | ||||||||||
1923 | 1000 | ||||||||||
1924 | 2000 | ||||||||||
1925 | 2300 | ||||||||||
1926 | 2300 | ||||||||||
1927 | 2600 | ||||||||||
1928 | 2800 | ||||||||||
1929 | 3300 | ||||||||||
1930 | 2500 | ||||||||||
1931 | 600 | ||||||||||
1932 | 1300 | ||||||||||
1933 | 1500 | ||||||||||
1934 | 2000 | ||||||||||
1935 | 2100 | ||||||||||
1936 | 2100 | ||||||||||
1937 | 2000 | ||||||||||
1938 | 2000 | ||||||||||
1939 | 1800 | ||||||||||
1940 | 1600 | ||||||||||
1941 | 1500 | ||||||||||
1942 | 1400 | ||||||||||
1943 | 1400 | ||||||||||
1944 | 1300 | ||||||||||
1945 | 1000 | ||||||||||
1946 | 900 | ||||||||||
1947 | 800 | ||||||||||
1948 | 900 | ||||||||||
1949 | 900 | ||||||||||
1950 | 900 | ||||||||||
1951 | 900 | ||||||||||
1952 | 900 | ||||||||||
1953 | 1000 | ||||||||||
1954 | 900 | ||||||||||
1955 | 1100 | ||||||||||
1956 | 1100 | ||||||||||
1957 | 1100 | ||||||||||
1958 | 1100 | ||||||||||
1959 | 1200 | ||||||||||
1960 | 1200 | ||||||||||
1961 | 1200 | ||||||||||
1962 | 1200 | ||||||||||
1963 | 1300 | ||||||||||
1964 | 1300 | ||||||||||
1965 | 1300 | ||||||||||
1966 | 1300 | ||||||||||
1967 | 1400 | ||||||||||
1968 | 1600 | ||||||||||
1969 | 1700 | ||||||||||
1970 | 1700 | ||||||||||
1971 | 1800 | ||||||||||
1972 | 3300 | ||||||||||
1973 | 3600 | ||||||||||
1974 | 3800 | 480 | 2810 | ||||||||
1975 | 4100 | 562 | 2.6 | 3092 | |||||||
1976 | 4000 | 414 | 2.08 | 3020 | |||||||
1977 | 4200 | 350 | 1.4 | 4348 | |||||||
1978 | 3200 | 116 | 0.35 | 1676 | |||||||
1979 | 2700 | 60 | |||||||||
1980 | 3300 | 297 | 4332 | ||||||||
1981 | 3700 | 665 | 3.04 | 10855 | |||||||
1982 | 4200 | 726 | 3.04 | 10186 | |||||||
1983 | 4000 | 740 | 2.71 | 8880 | |||||||
1984 | 5200 | 756 | 2.58 | 7478 | |||||||
1985 | 5200 | 596 | 5344 | ||||||||
1986 | 4300 | 602 | 5659 | ||||||||
1987 | 4000 | 750 | 6557 | ||||||||
1988 | 3400 | 732 | 5502 | ||||||||
1989 | 3800 | 508 | 5771 | ||||||||
1990 | 3400 | 945 | 6593 | ||||||||
1991 | 2300 | 290 | 887 | ||||||||
1992 | 2000 | ||||||||||
1993 | 2200 | ||||||||||
1994 | 1900 | ||||||||||
1995 | 2000 | ||||||||||
1996 | 2100 | ||||||||||
1997 | 2400 | ||||||||||
1998 | 500 | ||||||||||
Totals | 457,969 | 798,696 | 169,100 | 4,072,680 | 219,951 | 170,470 | 223.275 | 101,343 | 1,543 | 6,328 | 114,729 |
See also
- Bal maidens, female ore dressers
- Beam engine
- Come, all ye jolly tinner boys
- Cornish emigration
- Cornish engine
- Cornish Foreshore Case
- Cornish Mines & Engines
- Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape, a World Heritage Site
- Dartmoor tin-mining
- Geology of Cornwall
- Hayle, centre of copper smelting
- John Taylor, inventor of the Cornish rolls
- Kenneth Hamilton Jenkin, historian
- Knocker, said to inhabit the mines
- Lostwithiel Stannary Palace
- Mineral Tramway Trails
- Morwellham Quay, inland port
- Robert Hunt, mineralogist and statistician
- Tin sources and trade in ancient times
- Welcome Stranger (a notable nugget of gold found by two Cornish miners in Victoria, Australia)
- William Jory Henwood, mining geologist
- Williams family of Caerhays and Burncoose, mining entrepreneurs
- Scorrier House, seat of the Williams family
- Tin coinage
- Helston Coinage hall
- Stannary
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Bibliography
- Barton, D. B. (1963). A Guide to the Mines of West Cornwall. Truro: D. Bradford Barton.
- JSTOR 1793956.
- Buckley, Allen; Earl, Bryan (1990). "Preliminary report on the tin and iron working site at Crift Farm". Journal of the Trevithick Society. 17: 66–77.
- Cathro, R. J. (2005). "Tin deposits and the early history of bronze". CIM Bulletin. 98 (1088).
- Champion, Timothy (2001). "The appropriation of the Phoenicians in British imperial ideology". Nations and Nationalism. 7 (4): 451–465. .
- Christie, P. M. (1986). "Cornwall in the Bronze Age". Cornish Archaeology. 25: 81–111.
- Cradock, Paul T.; Cradock, Brenda R. (1996). "The beginning of metallurgy in south west Britain: hypotheses and evidence" (PDF). Mining History. 13 (2): 52–63.
- Cunliffe, Barry (1982). "Britain, the Veneti and beyond". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 1 (1): 39–68. .
- Emsley, J. (2001). "Tin". Nature's Building Blocks: an A–Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 445–450. ISBN 9780198503408.
- Fox, Aileen (1973). South West England (2nd ed.).
- Fox, Aileen (1996). "Tin ingots from Bigbury Bay, South Devon" (PDF). Mining History: The Bulletin of the Peak District Mines Historical Society. 13 (2): 150–151.
- Gerrard, S. The Early British Tin Industry, Tempus, 2000.
- Hatcher, John (1970). Rural Economy and Society in the Duchy of Cornwall 1300–1500. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-08550-0.
- Penhallurick, R. Tin in Antiquity. 1986.
- Penhallurick, R. Europe Tin Deposits. 1998.
- Rippon, S.; Claughton, P.; Smart, C. (2009). Mining in a Medieval Landscape: the Royal Silver Mines of the Tamar Valley. University of Exeter Press.
Further reading
- Barton, D. Bradford (1961) A History of Copper Mining in Cornwall & Devon. Truro: Truro Bookshop; 2nd ed. Truro, 1968; 3rd ed. Truro, 1978
- Beer, K. E. (1956). The Metalliferous Mining Region of South-West England: addenda and corrigenda. Keyworth: British Geological Survey. pp. xi–xlvii.
- Booker, Frank (1967) The Industrial Archaeology of the Tamar Valley. Newton Abbot: David & Charles; Revised impression 1971
- Brooks, Tony (2001) Castle-an-Dinas 1916–1957: Cornwall's premier tungsten mine with brief comparative histories of other wolfram mines in Cornwall & West Devon. St. Austell, Cornwall : Cornish Hillside Publications ISBN 1-900147-15-7
- Burt, Roger, with Raymond Burnley, Michael Gill and Alasdair Neill (2014) Mining in Cornwall & Devon: Mines and Men. Exeter: University of Exeter Press ISBN 978-0-85989-889-8
- Collins, J. H. (1897) The Miner in Cornwall and Devon. (Cited by A. C. Todd (1972); p. 11.)
- Cunliffe, Barry "Ictis is it here?"; Oxford Journal of Archaeology 2/1, pp. 123–126, 1983.
- Dines, H. G. (1956). The Metalliferous Mining Region of South-West England. Vol. 1 & 2. London: HMSO. pp. 526 & 300.
- Earl, Bryan (1994). Cornish Mining: the techniques of metal mining in the West of England, past and present (2nd ed.). St Austell: Cornish Hillside Publications. ISBN 0-9519419-3-3.
- Hatcher, John English Tin Production and Trade before 1550. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973.
- Hawkes, C. "Ictis disentangled and the British tin trade" in: Oxford Journal of Archaeology; 3/2, pp 211–234, 1984.
- Hammersen, L. The Control of Tin in South West Britain from the 1st Century AD to the Late 3rd Century AD. MA thesis, North Carolina University, 2007.
- Jenkin, Kenneth Hamilton The Cornish Miner: an account of his life above and underground from early times. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1927: three editions, including 3rd edition, 1962 (reprinted by David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1972 ISBN 1-902395-06-9)
- Jenkin, Kenneth Hamilton Mines and Miners of Cornwall in 16 volumes, vols. 1–14 originally published by the Truro Bookshop, 1961 onwards and reprinted by various organisations:
- Pt. I. Around St. Ives ISBN 0-904662-04-7
- Pt. II. St. Agnes, Perranporth ISBN 0-904662-05-5
- Pt. III. Around Redruth ISBN 0-904662-06-3
- Pt. IV. Penzance-Mount's Bay ISBN 0-904662-08-X
- Pt. V. Hayle, Gwinear and Gwithian ISBN 0-904662-10-1
- Pt. VI. Around Gwennap ISBN 0-904662-11-X
- Pt. VII. Perranporth-Newquay
- Pt. VIII. Truro to the clay district
- Pt. IX. Padstow, St Columb and Bodmin
- Pt. X. Camborne and Illogan
- Pt. XI. Marazion, St Hilary and Breage
- Pt. XII. Liskeard area
- Pt. XIII. The Lizard-Falmouth-Mevagissey
- Pt. XIV. St Austell to Saltash
- Pt. XV. Calstock, Callington and Launceston Penzance: Federation of Old Cornwall Societies, 1969 (reprinted Bracknell: Forge Books, 1976) ISBN 0-902660-00-4
- Pt. XVI. Wadebridge, Camelford and Bude Penzance: Federation of Old Cornwall Societies, 1970
- Index to Mines and Miners of Cornwall: Volumes 1–16. St. Austell: Federation of Old Cornwall Societies, 1978
- Pt. I. Around St. Ives
- Jenkin, Kenneth Hamilton Mines of Devon. Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1974
- Volume 1: South Devon ISBN 0-7153-6784-6
- Volume 2: Mines of Devon, north and east of Dartmoor: Sydenham Damerel, Lydford, Wheal Betsy, Wheal Friendship, Okehampton, Sticklepath, Chagford, Buckfastleigh, Ashburton, Ilsington, Teign Valley, Newton St. Cyres, and Upton Pyne. (Reprinted by Devon Libraries 1981 ISBN 0-86114-317-5)
- Both volumes reprinted by Landmark, 2005 ISBN 1-84306-174-0
- Volume 1: South Devon
- Jenkin, Kenneth Hamilton Wendron Tin (commissioned by Poldark Mine), 1978
- Laing, L. R. "A Greek tin trade with Cornwall" in: Cornish Archaeology; 7, 1968, pp. 15–22.
- Lewis, G. R. : The Stannaries: a study of the English tin miner. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1924.
- Lewis, Jim (2006) "Cornish copper mining 1795-1830: economy, structure and change", in: Cornish Archaeology; ser. II, vol. 14, ISBN 0-85989-799-0; pp. 164–86.
- Murray, John, publisher (1859) Handbook for Devon and Cornwall. London: John Murray
- Pearce, Susan C. Bronze Age Metalwork of South West Britain. (BAR; 190). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1983.
- Quinell, H. Cornwall in the Iron and Roman Ages.
- Rickard, T. A. Man and Metals: a history of mining in relation to the development of civilisation (2 vols). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1932.
- Spargo, Thomas (1860). Statistics and Observations on the Mines of Cornwall and Devon.
- Stanier, Peter Mines of Cornwall and Devon: an historic photographic record. Truro: Twelveheads Press, 1998 ISBN 0-906294-40-1
- Todd, A. C. & Laws, Peter (1972) The Industrial Archaeology of Cornwall. Newton Abbot: David & Charles
- Trounson, J. H. (1980, 1981) Mining in Cornwall, 1850-1960. 2 vols. Ashbourne: Moorland ISBN 0903485958
- Trounson, J. H. (1999) Mining in Cornwall; rev. & enlarged ed. compiled by J. H. Trounson and L. J. Bullen Stroud: Tempus Vol. 1: The central district; vol. 2: The county explored. ISBN 0752417088(v. 2);
- Trounson, J. H. (1989) The Cornish Mineral Industry: past performance and future prospect, a personal view 1937–1951; edited by Roger Burt and Peter Waite. Exeter: University of Exeter in association with the National Association of Mining History Organisations
- Trounson, J. H. (1993) Cornwall's Future Mines: areas of Cornwall of mineral potential. Exeter: University of Exeter Press
- Devon
- Finberg, H. P. R. (1949). "The Stannary of Tavistock". Rep. Trans. Devon. Ass. Advmt Sci. 81.
- Finberg, H. P. R. (1950). "An Unrecorded Stannary Parliament". Rep. Trans. Devon. Ass. Advmt Sci. 82.
- Harris, Helen (1972). Industrial Archaeology of Dartmoor. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-4302-5.
- Newman, Phil (1998). The Dartmoor Tin Industry – A Field Guide. Newton Abbot: Chercombe Press. ISBN 0-9532708-0-7.
- Richardson, P. H. G. (1992). Mines of Dartmoor and the Tamar Valley after 1913. Sheffield: The Northern Mine Research Society. ISBN 0-901450-38-3.
- Thorneycroft, V. R., Pirrie, D. and Brown, A. (2004) "Alluvial records of medieval and prehistoric tin mining on Dartmoor, southwest England" in: Geoarchaeology; 19/3, pp 219–236, Feb 2004.
- Worth, R. N. (1967). Spooner, G. M.; ISBN 0715351486.
- United States
- Cornish, Joseph H. The History and Genealogy of the Cornish Families in America. Higginson Book Company. 2003. ASIN: B0006S85H6.
- Ewart, Shirley. Highly Respectable Families: the Cornish of Grass Valley, California 1854–1954 (Nevada County Pioneers Series). Comstock Bonanza Press. October 1998. ISBN 978-0-933994-18-8.
- Magnaghi, Russell M. Cornish in Michigan (Discovering the Peoples of Michigan Series). Michigan State University Press. October 2007. ISBN 978-0-87013-787-7.
- ISBN 978-1-904880-04-2.
- ISBN 978-1-85022-059-6.
- Todd, Arthur C. The Cornish Miner in America: the Contribution to the Mining History of the United States by Emigrant Cornish Miners: the Men Called Cousin Jacks. Arthur H. Clark (publisher). September 1995. ISBN 978-0-87062-238-0.
- White, Helen M. Cornish Cousins of Minnesota, Lost and Found: St. Piran's Society of Minnesota. Minnesota Heritage Publications. 1997. ASIN: B0006QP60M.