Christian mission
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A Christian mission is an organized effort to carry on
Missionaries preach the Christian faith and sometimes administer the
History of Christian missions
The earliest Christian mission, the
From
During the Middle Ages, Ramon Llull advanced the concept of preaching to Muslims and converting them to Christianity by means of non-violent argument.[5] A vision for large-scale mission to Muslims would die with him, not to be revived until the 19th century.
Additional events can be found at the timeline of Christian missions.
Medieval
During the Middle Ages, Christian
In the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries,
Catholic missions after 1492
One of the main goals of the Christopher Columbus expedition financed by Queen Isabella of Spain was to spread Christianity. During the Age of Discovery, Spain and Portugal established many missions in their American and Asian colonies. The most active orders were the Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans and Dominicans. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa. These are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some of these missions were associated with imperialism and oppression, others (notably Matteo Ricci's Jesuit mission to China) were relatively peaceful and focused on inculturation rather than cultural imperialism.
In both Portugal and Spain, religion was an integral part of the state and evangelization was seen as having both secular and spiritual benefits. Wherever these powers attempted to expand their territories or influence, missionaries would soon follow. By the Treaty of Tordesillas, the two powers divided the world between them into exclusive spheres of influence, trade and colonization. The proselytization of Asia became linked to Portuguese colonial policy.
From 1499 onward, Portuguese trade with Asia rapidly proved profitable. As
During the time of the
Protestant missions
The
In the centuries that followed, Protestant churches began sending out missionaries in increasing numbers, spreading the proclamation of the Christian message to previously
As European culture has been established in the midst of indigenous peoples, the cultural distance between Christians of differing cultures has been difficult to overcome. One[
From 1732 onwards the Moravian Church began sending out missionaries.
In the United States, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was chartered in 1812.
Protestant missionaries from the Anglican, Lutheran and Presbyterian traditions starting arriving in what was then the
Methodist missions
Baptist missions
Missionary organizations favored the development of the
In the United States, "
China
A wave of missions, starting in the early 1850s, targeted inland areas, led by a Briton
The missions inspired by Taylor and Guinness have collectively been called[
British Empire
In the 18th century, and even more so in the 19th century, missionaries based in Britain saw the British Empire as a fertile field for proselytizing for Christianity. All the main denominations were involved, including the Church of England, Scottish Presbyterian, and Nonconformists. Much of the enthusiasm emerged from the Evangelical revival. Within the Church of England, the Church Mission Society (CMS) originated in 1799[20] and went on to undertake activity all around the world, including in what became known as "the Middle East".[21][22]
Before the American Revolution, British Anglican and Methodist missionaries were active in the Thirteen Colonies. The Methodists, led by George Whitefield, were the most successful and after the Revolution an entirely distinct American Methodist denomination emerged that became the largest Protestant denomination in the United States.[23] A major problem for British colonial officials was the demand of the Church of England to set up an American bishop; this was strongly opposed by most of the Americans colonists, as it had never happened before. Colonial officials increasingly took a neutral position on religious matters, even in those colonies such as Virginia where the Church of England was officially established, but in practice controlled by laymen in the local vestries. After the American War of Independence, colonial officials decided to enhance the power and wealth of the Church of England in all British colonies, including British North America.[24]
Missionary societies funded their own operations that were not supervised or directed by the Colonial Office. Tensions emerged between the missionaries and the colonial officials. The latter feared that missionaries might stir up trouble or encourage the natives to challenge colonial authority. In general, colonial officials were much more comfortable with working with the established local leadership, including the native religions, rather than introducing the divisive force of Christianity. This proved especially troublesome in India, were very few local elites were attracted to Christianity. In Africa, especially, the missionaries made many converts. As of the 21st century there were more Anglicans in Nigeria than in England.[25][26]
Christian missions in Australia played a part in both indoctrinating Aboriginal Australians into Christianity,
Missionaries increasingly came to focus on education, medical help, and long-term modernization of the native personality to inculcate European middle-class values. They established schools and medical clinics. Christian missionaries played a public role, especially in promoting sanitation and public health. Many were trained as physicians, or took special courses in public health and tropical medicine at Livingstone College, London.[28]
After 1870
By the 1870s, Protestant missions around the world generally acknowledged the long-term material goal was the formation of independent, self-governing, self-supporting, self-propagating churches. The rise of nationalism in the Third World provoked challenges from critics who complained that the missionaries were teaching Western ways, and ignoring the indigenous culture. The Boxer Rebellion in China in 1899–1901 involved bloody attacks on Christian missions and especially their converts. The First World War diverted resources, and pulled most Germans out of missionary work when that country lost its empire. The worldwide Great Depression of the 1930s was a major blow to funding mission activities.[29]
In 1910, the
The next wave of missions was started by two missionaries,
An equally important dimension of missions strategy is the indigenous method of nationals reaching their own people. In Asia this wave of missions was pioneered by men like Dr G. D. James of Singapore,[31] Rev Theodore Williams of India[32] and Dr David Cho of Korea. The "two thirds missions movement" as it is referred to, is today a major force in missions.
Most modern missionaries and missionary societies have repudiated cultural imperialism, and elected to focus on spreading the gospel and translating the Bible.[citation needed] Sometimes, missionaries have been vital in preserving and documenting the culture of the peoples among whom they live.
Often, missionaries provide welfare and health services, as a good deed or to make friends with the locals. Thousands of schools, orphanages, and hospitals have been established by missions. One service provided by missionaries was the Each one, teach one literacy program begun by Dr. Frank Laubach in the Philippines in 1935. The program has since spread around the world and brought literacy to the least enabled members of many societies.[citation needed]
During this period missionaries, especially
The word "mission" was historically often applied to the building, the "
Additional events can be found at the Timeline of Christian missions.
Contemporary concepts of mission
Sending and receiving nations
Major nations not only send and fund missionaries abroad, but also receive them from other countries. In 2010, the United States sent out 127,000 missionaries, while 32,400 came to the United States. Brazil was second, sending out 34,000, and receiving 20,000. France sent out 21,000 and received 10,000. Britain sent out 15,000 and received 10,000. India sent out 10,000 and received 8000. Other major exporters included Spain at 21,000 sent out, Italy at 20,000, South Korea at 20,000, Germany at 14,000, and Canada at 8,500. Large recipient nations included Russia, receiving 20,000; Congo receiving 15,000; South Africa, 12,000; Argentina, 10,000; and Chile, 8,500. The largest sending agency in the United States is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints who, at this date 2019, has 67,000 full time proselytizing young missionaries all over the world with many more elder missionaries serving in similar circumstances. The Southern Baptist Convention, has 4,800 missionaries, plus 450 support staff working inside the United States. The annual budget is about $50,000 per year per missionary. In recent years, however, the Southern Baptist foreign missionary operation (the International Mission Board) has operated at a deficit, and it is cutting operations by 15 percent. It is encouraging older missionaries to retire and return to the United States.[35]
Modern missionary methods and doctrines among conservative Protestants
The Lausanne Congress of 1974, birthed a movement that supports evangelical mission among non-Christians and nominal Christians. It regards "mission" as that which is designed "to form a viable indigenous church-planting and world changing movement." This definition is motivated by a theologically imperative theme of the Bible to make God known, as outlined in the Great Commission. The definition is claimed to summarize the acts of Jesus' ministry, which is taken as a model motivation for all ministries.
This Christian missionary movement seeks to implement churches after the pattern of the first century Apostles. The process of forming disciples is necessarily social. "Church" should be understood in the widest sense, as a body of believers of Christ rather than simply a building. In this view, even those who are already culturally Christian must be "evangelized".
Church planting by cross-cultural missionaries leads to the establishment of self-governing, self-supporting and self-propagating communities of believers. This is the famous "three-self" formula formulated by
The objective of these missionaries is to give an understandable presentation of their beliefs with the hope that people will choose to following the teaching of Jesus Christ and live their lives as His disciples. As a matter of strategy, many
Modern mission techniques are sufficiently refined that within ten to fifteen years, most indigenous churches are locally pastored, managed, taught, self-supporting and evangelizing. The process can be substantially faster if a preexisting
One strategy is to let indigenous cultural groups decide to adopt Christian doctrines and benefits, when (as in most cultures) such major decisions are normally made by groups. In this way, opinion leaders in the groups can persuade much or most of the groups to convert. When combined with training in discipleship, church planting and other modern missionary doctrine, the result is an accelerating, self-propelled conversion of large portions of the culture.
A typical modern mission is a co-operative effort by many different ministries, often including several coordinating ministries, such as the Faith2Share network, often with separate funding sources. One typical effort proceeded as follows:
- A missionary radio group recruits, trains and broadcasts in the main dialect of the target culture's language. Broadcast content is carefully adapted to avoid syncretism yet help the Christian Gospel seem like a native, normal part of the target culture. Broadcast content often includes news, music, entertainment and education in the language, as well as purely Christian items.
- Broadcasts might advertise programs, inexpensive radios (possibly spring-wound), and a literature ministry that sells a Christian mail-order correspondence course at nominal costs. The literature ministry is key, and is normally a separate organization from the radio ministry. Modern literature missions are shifting to web-based content where it makes sense (as in Western Europe and Japan).
- When a person or group completes a correspondence course, they are invited to contact a church-planting missionary group from (if possible) a related cultural group. The church-planting ministry is usually a different ministry from either the literature or radio ministries. The church-planting ministry usually requires its missionaries to be fluent in the target language, and trained in modern church-planting techniques.
- The missionary then leads the group to start a church. Churches planted by these groups are usually a group that meets in a house. The object is the minimum organization that can perform the required character development and spiritual growth. Buildings, complex ministries and other expensive items are mentioned, but deprecated until the group naturally achieves the size and budget to afford them. The crucial training is how to become a Christian (by faith in Jesus Christ) and then how to set up a church (meet to study the Bible, and perform communion and worship), usually in that order.
- A new generation of churches is created, and the growth begins to accelerate geometrically. Frequently, daughter churches are created only a few months after a church's creation. In the fastest-growing Christian movements, the pastoral education is "pipelined", flowing in a just-in-time fashion from the central churches to daughter churches. That is, planting of churches does not wait for the complete training of pastors.
The most crucial part of church planting is selection and training of leadership. Classically, leadership training required an expensive stay at a seminary, a Bible college. Modern church planters deprecate this because it substantially slows the growth of the church without much immediate benefit. Modern mission doctrines replace the seminary with programmed curricula or (even less expensive) books of discussion questions, and access to real theological books. The materials are usually made available in a major trading language in which most native leaders are likely to be fluent. In some cases, the materials can be adapted for oral use.
It turns out that new pastors' practical needs for theology are well addressed by a combination of practical procedures for church planting, discussion in small groups, and motivated Bible-based study from diverse theological texts. As a culture's church's wealth increases, it will naturally form classic seminaries on its own.
Another related mission is
Among Roman Catholics
For Catholics, “Missions” is the term given to those particular undertakings by which the heralds of the Gospel, sent out by the Church and going forth into the whole world, carry out the task of preaching the Gospel and planting the Church among peoples or groups who do not yet believe in Christ.[36]
A steep decline in the number of people entering the priesthood and religious life in the West has made the Church look towards laity more and more. Communities like Opus Dei arose to meet this need.
Inculturation increasingly became a key topic of missiological reflection for Catholics. Inculturation is understood as the meeting of the Christian message with a community in their cultural context.
In relation to mission, Pope Benedict XVI made the re-evangelization of Europe and North America a priority in his own ministry,[37] even while the upper leadership of the Roman Catholic hierarchy and the college of cardinals has more members from Latin America, Africa, and Asia than ever before.[38]
Key documents on mission for Catholics during this period are Evangelii nuntiandi by Pope Paul VI and Redemptoris missio by Pope John Paul II.
Print and new media in mission
Christian mission organisations have long depended on the printed word as a channel through which to do mission. At times when countries have been "closed" to Christians, great efforts have been made to smuggle Bibles and other literature into those countries. Brother Andrew, the founder of Open Doors, started smuggling Bibles into communist countries in the 1950s.[39] Operation Mobilisation was established in 1957 by George Verwer.[40] Other Christian publishers, such as Plough Publishing, provide free books to people in the UK and US as a form of mission.[41] The Bible Society translates and prints Bibles, in an attempt to reach every country in the world.[42]
The internet now provides Christian mission organisations a convent way of reaching people in the form of podcasts. Podcasts provide a way of dissemination for a message that has potential to endanger the recipient, since it is very hard to track who has downloaded a specific podcast. An example of this is the Crescent Project.[43] Other podcasts, such as the Life Together podcast,[44] The Sacred, and Harvest are aimed at both non-Christians and Christians in the home country.[45]
Reverse mission
The shift in world Christian population from Europe and North America to the non-Western world, and the migration of Africans, Asians, and Latin Americans to the West has given rise to what some have termed "reverse mission". It demonstrates a reversal of the missionary movement, in that it reverses the direction of earlier missionary efforts.[46]
Inter-Organizational Missions
Globalization of the 21st century has served as a platform for opportunity for independent Christian organizations to unite together in cooperation for outreach missions and discipleship.
Some organizations are Christian consortiums which organizationally band themselves together like 50,000 persons in the Illinois-based Missio Nexus organization led by Ted Esler.[47]
Other organizations are united by a common source of financial funding, cooperation in outreach projects and digital communications between internal missions personnel around the world and their partners like the 25,000 people united in the GMNF Global Mission Society, founded by Anton R. Williams of Kalamazoo, Michigan and Grand Rapids, Michigan[48]
Still other organizations sign legal contacts with an agencies to join for specific functions in missions like the SIMS organization.[49]
Criticism
In 1924, Mahatma Gandhi wrote:
This [Christian] proselytization will mean no peace in the world. Conversions are harmful to India. If I had the power and could legislate I should certainly stop all proselytizing ... It pains me to have to say that the Christian missionaries as a body, with honorable exceptions, have actively supported a system which has impoverished, enervated and demoralized a people considered to be among the gentlest and most civilized on earth.[50][51]
In India, Hindu organisations such as the
In mid-May, the Vatican was also co-sponsoring a meeting about how some religious groups abuse liberties by proselytizing, or by evangelizing in aggressive or deceptive ways. Iraq ... has become an open field for foreigners looking for fresh converts. Some Catholic Church leaders and aid organizations have expressed concern about new Christian groups coming in and luring Iraqis to their churches with offers of cash, clothing, food or jobs. ... Reports of aggressive proselytism and reportedly forced conversions in mostly Hindu India have fueled religious tensions and violence there and have prompted some regional governments to pass laws banning proselytism or religious conversion. ... Sadhvi Vrnda Chaitanya, a Hindu monk from southern India, told CNS that India's poor and uneducated are especially vulnerable to coercive or deceptive methods of evangelization. ... Aid work must not hide any ulterior motives and avoid exploiting vulnerable people like children and the disabled, she said.[55]
In an interview with Outlook magazine, Sadhvi Vrnda Chaitanya said "If the Vatican could understand that every religious and spiritual tradition is as sacred as Christianity, and that they have a right to exist without being denigrated or extinguished, it will greatly serve the interests of dialogue, mutual respect, and peaceful coexistence."[56]
Communicating diseases
European explorers in the Americas introduced Afro-Eurasian diseases to which Amerindian peoples had no immunity, leading to tens of millions of deaths.[57] Missionaries, along with other travelers, brought diseases into native populations. Smallpox, measles, and common cold, have been blamed on their arrivals.[58] David Igler of the University of California, Irvine, includes missionary activity as a cause of spreading germs. However, he says that commercial traders were the main agents of disease:
other diseases arrived on non-commercial voyages; missionary activities certainly spread germs, and Spanish conquests had dispersed deadly germs in parts of the Americas and Pacific prior to the late eighteenth century. Yet, for the period between the 1770s and the 1840s, trading vessels were the main agents of disease, creating in the Pacific what Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie has called a "paroxysm" of the "microbian unification of the world." By 1850, the microbes of Europe, Asia, and Africa circulated in almost every Pacific population.[59]
Aid and evangelism
While there is a general agreement among most major aid organizations not to mix aid with proselyting, others see disasters as a useful opportunity to spread the word. One such an occurrence was the tsunami that devastated parts of Asia on December 26, 2004.[60]
"This (disaster) is one of the greatest opportunities God has given us to share his love with people," said K.P. Yohannan, president of the Texas-based Gospel for Asia. In an interview, Yohannan said his 14,500 "native missionaries" in India, Sri Lanka and the Andaman Islands are giving survivors Bibles and booklets about "how to find hope in this time through the word of God." In Krabi, Thailand, a Southern Baptist church had been "praying for a way to make inroads" with a particular ethnic group of fishermen, according to Southern Baptist relief coordinator Pat Julian. Then came the tsunami, "a phenomenal opportunity" to provide ministry and care, Julian told the Baptist Press news service. ... Not all evangelicals agree with these tactics. "It's not appropriate in a crisis like this to take advantage of people who are hurting and suffering", said the Rev. Franklin Graham, head of Samaritan's Purse and son of evangelist Billy Graham.[61]
The Christian Science Monitor echoes these concerns: "'I think evangelists do this out of the best intentions, but there is a responsibility to try to understand other faith groups and their culture,' says Vince Isner, director of FaithfulAmerica.org, a program of the National Council of Churches USA."[62]
The Bush administration has made it easier for U.S. faith-based groups and missionary societies to tie aid and church together.
For decades, US policy has sought to avoid intermingling government programs and religious proselytizing. The aim is both to abide by the Constitution's prohibition against a state religion and to ensure that aid recipients don't forgo assistance because they don't share the religion of the provider. ... But many of those restrictions were removed by Bush in a little-noticed series of executive orders – a policy change that cleared the way for religious groups to obtain hundreds of millions of dollars in additional government funding. It also helped change the message American aid workers bring to many corners of the world, from emphasizing religious neutrality to touting the healing powers of the Christian God.[63]
Christian counter-claims
Missionaries say that the government in India has passed anti-conversion laws in several states that are supposedly meant to prevent conversions from "force or allurement", but are primarily used, they say, to persecute and criminalize voluntary conversion due to the government's broad definition of "force and allurement". Any gift received from a Christian in exchange for, or with the intention of, conversion is considered allurement. Voice of the Martyrs reports that aid-workers claim that they are being hindered from reaching people with much needed services as a result of this persecution.[64] Alan de Lastic, Roman Catholic archbishop of New Delhi states that claims of forced conversion are false.[65]
"'There are attacks practically every week, maybe not resulting in death, but still, violent attacks,' Richard Howell, general secretary of the Evangelical Fellowship of India tells The Christian Science Monitor today. 'They [India's controlling BJP party] have created an atmosphere where minorities do feel insecure.'"[66] According to Prakash Louis, director of the secular Indian Social Institute in New Delhi, "We are seeing a broad attempt to stifle religious minorities and their constitutional rights ... Today, they say you have no right to convert, Tomorrow you have no right to worship in certain places."[67] Existing congregations, often during times of worship, are being persecuted.[68] Properties are sometimes destroyed and burnt to the ground, while native pastors are sometimes beaten and left for dead.[69][70][71][72][73][74][75]
Political scientist Robert Woodberry claims that conversionary Protestants were a crucial catalyst in spreading religious liberty, education, and democracy.[76] While his historical analysis is exhaustive, the accompanying empirical evidence suffers from severe inconsistencies. Elena Nikolova and Jakub Polansky replicate Woodberry's analysis using twenty-six alternative democracy measures and extend the time period over which the democracy measures are averaged. These two simple modifications lead to the breakdown of Woodberry's results. Overall, no significant relationship between Protestant missions and the development of democracy can be established.[77]
A major contribution of the
See also
- Adventist Mission
- Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery
- Catholic missions
- Christianization
- Colonialism
- Cultural imperialism
- Emmanuel Community
- Fidesco International
- Indian Reductions
- Jesuit Reductions
- List of Protestant missionary societies
- List of Christian missionaries
- List of Spanish missions
- Missions in California
- Mission (LDS Church)
- Missional living
- Missionary (LDS Church)
- Outstation (church)
- Proselytism
- Religious conversion
- Secondary conversion
- Short-term mission
- Timeline of Christian missions
- Youth with a Mission
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the Gospel of Christ was central to the "missionary" aspect of missionary nursing, the gospel of soap and water was central to "nursing" aspect of their works.
- ISBN 9780822349587.
Christian hygiene existed (and still exists) as one small but ever important part of this modernization project. Hygiene provides an incredibly mundane, deeply routinized, marker of Christian civility ...Identifying the rural poor as "The Great Unwashed," Haymaker published Christian pamphlets on health and hygiene, ... of personal hygiene" (filled with soap, toothpaste, and floss), attempt to shape Christian Outreach and Ethnicity.
- ISBN 9780802862761.
Along with the use of allopathic medicine, greater hygiene was one of the most frequently mobilized markers of the boundary between Christians and other communities of Chhattisgarh ... The missionaries had made no secret of preaching "soap" along with "salvation,"..
- ISBN 9788125028123.
where slavery was in vogue Christianity advocated its end and personal hygiene was encouraged
- ISBN 9789004253612.
CLEANLINESS AND GODLINESS: These examples indicate that real cleanliness was becoming the preserve of Europeans, and, it has to be added, of Christianity. Soap became an attribute of God — or rather the Protestant
- ISBN 9780520098695.
In this way, Western forms of hygiene, health care and child rearing became an important part of creating the modern Christian in Korea.
- ISBN 9788177550504.
A major contribution of the Christian missionaries was better health care of the people through hygiene. Soap, tooth - powder and brushes came to be used increasingly in urban areas.
- ISBN 9781317413981.
cleanliness and hygiene became an important marker of being identified as a Christian
Further reading
- Anderson, Gerald H., (ed.) Biographical dictionary of Christian missions, Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1998
- Arles, Siga. Theological Education for the Mission of the Church in India: 1947 - 1987, New York: Peter Lang, 1992.
- Bainbridge, William F. Around the World Tour of Christian Missions: A Universal Survey (1882) 583 pages; full text online
- Barnes, Jonathan S. Power and Partnership: A History of the Protestant Mission Movement (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2013)
- Barrett, David, ed. World Christian Encyclopedia, Oxford University Press, 1982.
- Beaver, R. Pierce. "North American Thought on the Fundamental Principles of Missions During the Twentieth Century". Church History 21.4 (1952): 345–364.
- Beaver, R. Pierce. ed American Missions in Bicentennial Perspective(1977).
- Beaver, Robert Pierce. American Protestant Women in World Mission: History of the First Feminist Movement in North America. (WB Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1980).
- Beaver, Robert Pierce. Church, state, and the American Indians: two and a half centuries of partnership in missions between Protestant churches and government (Concordia Pub. House, 1966).
- Beaver, Robert Pierce. Missionary Motivation through Three Centuries (1968).
- Best, Jeremy. "Godly, International, and Independent: German Protestant Missionary Loyalties before World War I". Central European History (2014) 47#3 pp: 585–611.
- Bevans, Stephen B. A Century of Catholic Mission (2013) excerpt; wide-ranging survey focused on 20th century worldwide
- The Catholic Encyclopedia, (1913) online, worldwide detailed coverage
- Cnattingius, Hans. Bishops and societies: A study of Anglican colonial and missionary expansion, 1698–1850 (1952)
- Dries, Angelyn. The missionary movement in American Catholic history (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1998)
- Dunch, Ryan. "Beyond cultural imperialism: Cultural theory, Christian missions, and global modernity". History and Theory 41.3 (2002): 301–325. online
- Dwight, Henry Otis et al. eds., The Encyclopedia of Missions (2nd ed. 1904) Online, Global coverage Of Protestant and Catholic missions.
- Endres, David J. American Crusade: Catholic Youth in the World Mission Movement from World War I Through Vatican II (2010)
- Etherington, Norman, ed. Missions and Empire (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008)
- Fitzpatrick-Behrens, Susan. The Maryknoll Catholic Mission in Peru, 1943–1989: Transnational Faith and Transformation (2012)
- Glazier, Michael and Monika K. Hellwig, eds., The Modern Catholic Encyclopedia, Liturgical Press, 2004
- Glover, Robert H. The Progress of World-Wide Missions, rev. by J. Herbert Kane., Harper and Row, 1960
- Graham, Gael. Gender, culture, and Christianity: American Protestant mission schools in China, 1880–1930 (P. Lang, 1995)
- Herzog, Johann Jakob, Philip Schaff, and Albert Hauck. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, 12 volumes, Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1910–11
- Hollinger, David A. Protestants Abroad: How Missionaries Tried to Change the World but Changed America (2017) excerpt
- Huntley, Martha. Caring, growing, changing: a history of the Protestant mission in Korea (Friendship Press, 1984)
- Hutchison, William R. (1993). Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226363103.
- Kane, J. Herbert. A Concise History of the Christian World Mission, Baker, 1982
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 volumes, (1938–45), the most detailed scholarly history
- MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (2009)
- Moreau, A. Scott, David Burnett, Charles Edward van Engen and Harold A. Netland. Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions, Baker Book House Company, 2000
- Neill, Stephen. A History of Christian Missions. Penguin Books, 1986
- Newcomb, Harvey. A Cyclopedia of Missions: Containing a Comprehensive View of Missionary Operations Throughout the World : with Geographical Descriptions, and Accounts of the Social, Moral, and Religious Condition of the People (1860) 792 pages complete text online
- Pocock, Michael, Gailyn Van Rheenen, Douglas McConnell. The Changing Face of World Missions: Engaging Contemporary Issues And Trends (2005); 391 pages
- Ragsdale, John P. Protestant mission education in Zambia, 1880–1954 (Susquehanna University Press, 1986)
- Robert, Dana L. Christian Mission: How Christianity Became a World Religion (2009), 226pp; short survey
- Sievernich, Michael (2011), Christian Mission, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, retrieved: March 25, 2021 (pdf).
- Stanley, Brian. The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Mission and British Imperialism in the 19th and 20th Centuries (1990)
- Stanley, Brian. The Global Diffusion of Evangelicalism: The Age of Billy Graham and John Stott (2013)
- Tejirian, Eleanor H., and Reeva Spector Simon, eds. Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion: Two Thousand Years of Christian Missions in the Middle East (Columbia University Press; 2012) 280 pages; focus on the 19th and 20th centuries.
- Tyrrell, Ian. Reforming the World: The Creation of America's Moral Empire (2010) excerpt and text search
- Tucker, Ruth. From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya:From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya: A Biographical History of Christian Missions (2nd ed. 2004) excerpt and text search
- Yates, Timothy. The Conversion of the Maori: Years of Religious and Social Change, 1814–1842 (2013)
- ISBN 978-0-472-11490-0.
- Journal Social Sciences and Missions (Leiden: Brill), established 1995.
Positive or neutral
- Gailey and Culbertson. Discovering Missions by ISBN 0-8341-2257-X
- Johnstone Operation World ISBN 1-85078-357-8
- Moreau, Corwin and McGree. Introducing World Missions ISBN 0-8010-2648-2
- Olson, C. Gordon. What in the World is God Doing? Global Gospel Publishers, 2003
- Parker, J. Fred. Mission to the World. Nazarene Publishing House, 1988
- Van Rheenen Missions by ISBN 0-310-20809-2
- Winter and Hawthorne, eds. Perspectives on the World Christian Movement ISBN 0-87808-289-1
Critical
- "Vindicated by time – The Niyogi Committee Report On Christian Missionary Activities in Madhya Pradesh (India)"
- "History of Hindu – Christian Encounters 304 AD to 1996" By Sita Ram Goel, Publisher:Voice of India, New Delhi
- Shourie, A. (1994). Missionaries in India: Continuities, changes, dilemmas. New Delhi: ASA Publications.
- Missionary Conquest: The Gospel and Native American Cultural Genocide by George E. Tinker ISBN 978-0-8006-2576-4
- The Missionaries: God Against the Indians by Norman Lewis ISBN 0-14-013175-2
- The Dark Side of Christian History by Helen Ellerbe ISBN 0-9644873-4-9
- Goel, S. R. (1996). History of Hindu-Christian encounters, AD 304 to 1996. ISBN 8185990352
- Repression of Buddhism in Sri Lanka by the Portuguese (1505–1658) by Senaka Weeraratna
- Rajiv Malhotra: How Evangelists Invented 'Dravidian Christianity'
- Peter Rohrbacher: Völkerkunde und Afrikanistik für den Papst. Missionsexperten und der Vatikan 1922–1939 in: Römische Historische Mitteilungen 54 (2012), 583–610.
External links
- Missionary Organizations, missionary organizations directory
- Missiology.org, resources on missions (Christian) education.
- LFM. Social sciences & missions (academic journal)