Mizrahi Jews
יהודים מזרחים | |
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Total population | |
4.6 million (2018)[ Sephardi Jews, Ashkenazi Jews, other Jewish ethnic divisions and Samaritans; various Middle Eastern ethnic groups |
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Jews and Judaism |
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Mizrahi Jews (
Mizrahi is a political sociological term that was coined with the creation of the
In the current usage, Mizrahi also includes Jewish communities from
An earlier cultural community of southern and eastern Jews were the
Following the
Terminology
"Mizrahi" is literally translated as "Oriental", "Eastern", מזרח Mizraḥ, Hebrew for "East". In the past, the word "Mizrahim", corresponding to the Arabic word Mashriqiyyun (Arabic "مشريقيون" or Easterners), referred to the natives of Turkey, Iraq and other Asian countries, as distinct from those of North Africa (Maghribiyyun). In medieval and early modern times, the corresponding Hebrew word ma'arav was used for North Africa. In Talmudic and Geonic times, however, this word "ma'arav" referred to the land of Israel, as contrasted with Babylonia. For this reason, many[who?] object to the use of "Mizrahi" to include Moroccan and other North African Jews.
In the past, the origin of the term Mizrahi was in the Hebrew translation
The usage of the term Mizrahim or Edot Hamizraḥ, Oriental communities, grew in Israel under the circumstances of the meeting of waves of Jewish immigrants from Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, followers of Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Temani (Yemenite) rites. In modern Israeli usage, it refers to all Jews from Central and West Asian countries, many of them Arabic-speaking Muslim-majority countries. The term came to be widely used more by Mizrahi activists in the early 1990s. Since then in Israel it has become an accepted semi-official and media designation.[29]
Before the establishment of the state of Israel, Mizrahi Jews did not identify themselves as a separate Jewish subgroup. Instead, Mizrahi Jews generally characterized themselves as Sephardi, as they follow the
Most of the "Mizrahi" activists actually originated from North African Jewish communities, traditionally called "Westerners" (Maghrebi), rather than "Easterners" (Mashreqi). The Jews who emigrated to Palestine from North Africa in the 19th Century and prior started their own political and religious organization in 1860 which operated in Jerusalem was called "The Western Jewish Diaspora Council" (Hebrew: "ועד העדה המערבית בירושלים"). Many Jews originated from Arab and Muslim countries today reject "Mizrahi" (or any) umbrella description, and prefer to identify themselves by their particular country of origin, or that of their immediate ancestors, e. g., "Moroccan Jew", or prefer to use the old term "Sephardi" in its broader meaning.[31]
Religious rite designations
Today, many identify non-Ashkenazi rite Jews as Sephardi – in modern Hebrew Sfaradim – mixing ancestral origin and religious rite. This broader definition of "Sephardim" as including all, or most, Mizrahi Jews is also common in Jewish religious circles. During the past century, the Sephardi rite absorbed part of the unique rite of the Yemenite Jews,[citation needed] and lately, Beta Israel religious leaders in Israel have also joined Sefardi rite collectivities,[citation needed] especially following rejection of their Jewishness by some Ashkenazi circles.
The reason for this classification of all Mizrahim under Sephardi rite is that most Mizrahi communities use much the same religious rituals as Sephardim proper due to historical reasons. The prevalence of the Sephardi rite among Mizrahim is partially a result of Sephardim proper joining some of Mizrahi communities following the 1492 Alhambra Decree, which expelled Jews from Sepharad (Spain and Portugal). Over the last few centuries, the previously distinctive rites of the Mizrahi communities were influenced, superimposed upon or altogether replaced by the rite of the Sephardim, perceived as more prestigious. Even before this assimilation, the original rite of many Jewish Oriental communities was already closer to the Sephardi rite than to the Ashkenazi one. For this reason, "Sephardim" has come to mean not only "Spanish Jews" proper but "Jews of the Spanish rite", just as "Ashkenazim" is used for "Jews of the German rite", whether or not their families originate in Germany.
Many of the Sephardi Jews exiled from Spain resettled in greater or lesser numbers in the Arab world, such as Syria and Morocco. In Syria, most eventually intermarried with, and assimilated into, the larger established communities of Musta'rabim and Mizrahim. In some North African countries, such as Morocco, Sephardi Jews came in greater numbers, and so largely contributed to the Jewish settlements that the pre-existing Jews were assimilated by the more recently arrived Sephardi Jews. Either way, this assimilation, combined with the use of the Sephardi rite, led to the popular designation and conflation of most non-Ashkenazi Jewish communities from Western Asia and North Africa as "Sephardi rite", whether or not they were descended from Spanish Jews, which is what the terms "Sephardi Jews" and "Sfaradim" properly implied when used in the ethnic as opposed to the religious sense.
In some Arabic countries, such as Egypt and Syria, Sephardi Jews arrived via the Ottoman Empire would distinguish themselves from the already established Musta'rabim, while in others, such as Morocco and Algeria, the two communities largely intermarried, with the latter embracing Sephardi customs and thus forming a single community.
Language
Arabic
In the Arab world (such as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq, and Syria), Mizrahim most often speak Arabic.[3] Most of the many notable philosophical, religious and literary works of the Jews in Spain, North Africa and Asia were written in Arabic using a modified Hebrew alphabet.
Aramaic
In
Persian and other languages and dialects
Among other languages associated with Mizrahim are
History
The
As Islam started to spread in the 7th century CE, Jews who were living under Muslim rule became dhimmis. Because Jews were seen as "People of the Book", they were allowed to practice their own religion, but they had an inferior status in an Islamic society.[36] Even though Jews in the Middle East and North Africa formed strong attachments to the areas in which they lived,[37] they were seen as a community which was clearly distinct from other communities.[37][38] For example, while Musta'arabi Jews in the Arab world were influenced by the local culture, e.g. they started speaking variants of the Arabic language[39] and ate their own versions of the same food,[40] they did not adopt Arab identity. Instead, Jews in the Arab world saw themselves (including the ones with family background of converts) and were seen as fundamentally a part of the wider collective of the Jewish people, and they maintained their identity as the descendants of the ancient Israelite tribes.[37]
Some Mizrahim migrated to India, Central Asia, and the Caucasus.[3]
Post-1948 dispersal
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Antisemitism in the Arab world |
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After the establishment of the State of Israel and subsequent 1948 Arab–Israeli War, most Mizrahim were either expelled by their Arab rulers or chose to leave and emigrated to Israel.[41][42] According to the 2009 Statistical Abstract of Israel, 50.2% of Israeli Jews are of Mizrahi or Sephardi origin.[43]
Anti-Jewish actions by Arab governments in the 1950s and 1960s, in the context of the founding of the State of Israel, led to the departure of large numbers of Mizrahi Jews from the Middle East and North Africa.[
Today, as many as 40,000 Mizrahim still remain in communities scattered throughout the non-Arab
Memorialization in Israel
9 May 2021, the first physical memorialization in Israel of the Departure and Expulsion of Jews from Arab land and Iran was placed on the Sherover Promenade in Jerusalem. It is titled the Departure and Expulsion Memorial following the Knesset law for the annual recognition of the Jewish experience held annually on 30 November.[46]
The text on the Memorial reads;
"With the birth of the State of Israel, over 850,000 Jews were forced from Arab Lands and Iran. The desperate refugees were welcomed by Israel.
By Act of the Knesset: 30 Nov, annually, is the Departure and Expulsion Memorial Day. Memorial donated by the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation, With support from the World Sephardi Federation, City of Jerusalem and the Jerusalem Foundation"
The sculpture is the interpretive work of Sam Philipe, a fifth generation Jerusalemite.
Absorption into Israeli society
Refuge in Israel was not without its tragedies: "In a generation or two, millennia of rooted Oriental civilization, unified even in its diversity", had been wiped out, writes Mizrahi scholar Ella Shohat.[47] The trauma of rupture from their countries of origin was further complicated by the difficulty of the transition upon arrival in Israel; Mizrahi immigrants and refugees were placed in rudimentary and hastily erected tent cities (ma'abarot) often in development towns on the peripheries of Israel. Settlement in moshavim (cooperative farming villages) was only partially successful, because Mizrahim had historically filled a niche as craftsmen and merchants and most did not traditionally engage in farmwork. As the majority left their property behind in their home countries as they journeyed to Israel, many suffered a severe decrease in their socio-economic status aggravated by their cultural and political differences with the dominant Ashkenazi community. Furthermore, a policy of austerity was enforced at that time due to economic hardships.
Mizrahi immigrants arrived speaking many languages:
- many, especially those from North Africa and the Fertile Crescent, spoke Arabic dialects;
- those from Iran spoke Persian;
- Mountain Jews from Azerbaijan and Dagestan spoke Judeo-Tat;
- Baghdadi Jews from India spoke English;
- Bukharan Jews from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan spoke the Bukhori dialect;
- the Malabar Jews from Kerala, India, arrived speaking Judeo-Malayalam.
- the Bene Israel from Maharashtra, India, arrived speaking Marathi.
Mizrahim from elsewhere brought Georgian, Judaeo-Georgian and various other languages with them. Hebrew had historically been a language only of prayer for most Jews not living in Israel, including the Mizrahim. Thus, with their arrival in Israel, the Mizrahim retained culture, customs and language distinct from their Ashkenazi counterparts. The collective estimate for Mizrahim (circa 2018) is at 4,000,000.[48]
Disparities and integration
The cultural differences between Mizrahi and Ashkenazi Jews impacted the degree and rate of assimilation into Israeli society, and sometimes the divide between Eastern European and Middle Eastern Jews was quite sharp. Segregation, especially in the area of housing, limited integration possibilities over the years.[49] Intermarriage between Ashkenazim and Mizrahim is increasingly common in Israel and by the late 1990s 28% of all Israeli children had multi-ethnic parents (up from 14% in the 1950s).[50] It has been claimed that intermarriage does not tend to decrease ethnic differences in socio-economic status,[51] however, that does not apply to the children of inter-ethnic marriages.[52]
Although social integration has increased, disparities persist. A study conducted by the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics (ICBS), Mizrahi Jews are less likely to pursue academic studies than Ashkenazi Jews. Israeli-born Ashkenazim are up to twice as likely to study in a university as Israeli-born Mizrahim.[53] Furthermore, the percentage of Mizrahim who seek a university education remains low compared to second-generation immigrant groups of Ashkenazi origin, such as Russians.[54] According to a survey by the Adva Center, the average income of Ashkenazim was 36 percent higher than that of Mizrahim in 2004.[55]
In 2023, journalist Shany Littman believes the dynamics of inequality have reversed, with most Israeli cabinet ministers and City mayors being Mizrahi Jews; also she stated that middle-class Mizrahi women earned more than their Ashkenazi counterparts.[56]
Genetics
In 2000, M. Hammer, et al. conducted a study on 1,371 men and definitively established that part of the paternal gene pool of Jewish communities in Europe, North Africa and the Middle East came from a common Middle East ancestral population. They suggested that most Jewish communities in the
In a 2010 study by Behar, et al. the
See also
- Adeni Jews
- Arab Jews
- Arab–Israeli conflict
- Berber Jews
- Eastern Sephardim
- Hebrews, a term which is used as a synonym for the terms "Israelites" and "Jews"
- Jewish culture
- Jewish ethnic divisions
- List of Israeli Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews
- North African Sephardim
- Palestinian Jews
- Spanish and Portuguese Jews
References
- ^ Jewish Population by Country 2021 website
- ^ [1]
- ^ a b c d e "Mizrahi Jews". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- JSTOR 2676427.
- ^ Cohen, Hadar (29 November 2022). "Mizrahi Remembrance Month: Reclaiming our stories".
- ^ "Ancient Jewish History: Jews of the Middle East". JVL.
- ^ Mazzig, Hen (20 May 2019). "Op-Ed: No, Israel isn't a country of privileged and powerful white Europeans". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-5403-3: "The principal significance of this plan lies in the fact, noted by Yehuda Shenhav, that this was the first time in Zionist history that Jews from Middle Eastern and North African countries were all packaged together in one category as the target of an immigration plan. There were earlier plans to bring specific groups, such as the Yemenites, but the "one million plan" was, as Shenhav says, "the zero point," the moment when the category of mizrahi jews in the current sense of this term, as an ethnic group distinct from European-born jews, was invented."
- ^ "Who Are the Mizrahi (Oriental/Arab) Jews? - Israeli-Palestinian - ProCon.org". Israeli-Palestinian. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ^ a b c d "Mizrahi Jews in Israel". My Jewish Learning. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ^ a b katzcenterupenn. "What Do You Know? Sephardi vs. Mizrahi". Herbert D. Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ^ a b "Sephardi | Meaning, Customs, History, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
- S2CID 145345386.
- Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, Netherlands
- ^ a b "Who Are Mizrahi Jews?". My Jewish Learning. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ^ "Ethnic origin and identity in the Jewish population of Israel" (PDF). Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 27 June 2018. Retrieved 26 September 2019.
- ^ a b Ruvik Rosental, PhD., "Western Sepharadim and Eastern Ashkenazim" at his website, 9 September 2000.
- S2CID 154022510.
- JSTOR 41804898.
- ^ Anat Leibler, “Disciplining Ethnicity: Social Sorting Intersects with Political Demography in Israel’s Pre-State Period,” Social Studies of Science 44, no. 2 (2014), p. 273.
- Israeli Ministry of Educationpaper for high school students about North African Jews who prior were called "Western Jews" to as &/ "Mugrabi Jews" as opposed to "Mizrahi/Eastern Jews".
- ^ For God's Sake: Why Are There So Many More Israelis with the Surname "Mizrahi" Than "Friedmans"?, by Michal Margalit, 17 January 2014, Ynet.
- ^ The Surname that Israelis Change the Most: "Mizrahi", Ofer Aderet, Haaretz, 17 February 2017.
- ^ לוקש, אלכסנדרה (22 February 2017). "כולנו נהפוך למור וחן? אבשלום קור לא מודאג". Ynet.
- ^ Alon Gan, "Victimhood Book", Israel Democracy Institute, 2014. Pp. 137–139.
- ^ Dina Haruvi and Hadas Shabbat-Nadir, "Have You Ever Met A Streotypical Mizrahi?"" (in Hebrew), Ohio State University.
- ^ Haggai Ram, "Iranophobia: The Logic of an Israeli Obsession", Stanford University Press.
- ^ Shohat, Ella (May 2001). "Rupture And Return: A Mizrahi Perspective On The Zionist Discourse". The MIT Electronic Journal of Middle East Studies. Archived from the original (DOC) on 12 May 2004. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ a b "There Are People who Want to Keep Us in the Bottom", Sami Michael's 1999 interview with Ruvik Rozental.
- ^ Yochai Oppenheimer, "Mizrahi fiction as a minor literature", in Dario Miccoli eds., Contemporary Sephardic and Mizrahi Literature: A Diaspora, 2017. pp. 98–100.
- ^ Leo Oppenheim, A (1964). "Ancient Mesopotamia" (PDF). The University of Chicago Press.
- ^ Jamie Stokes (ed.): Encyclopedia of The Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, p. 337. Facts on File, 2009.
- ^ Nicholas de Lange: Atlas of the Jewish world, p. 22. Equinox, 1991.
- ^ Nicholas de Lange: Atlas of the Jewish world, p. 23. Equinox, 1991.
- ^ Jamie Stokes (ed.): Encyclopedia of The Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, p. 343. Facts on File, 2009.
- ^ a b c Daniel J. Schroeter: A Different Road to Modernity: Jewish Identity in the Arab World, in Howard Wettstein (ed.): Diasporas and Exiles: Varieties of Jewish Identity. University of California Press. 2002.
- ^ Nicholas de Lange: Atlas of the Jewish world, p. 79. Equinox, 1991.
- ^ Lowenstein, Steven M.: The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions, p. 60. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
- ^ Lowenstein, Steven M.: The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions, pp. 123–124. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
- ^ "Jews of the Middle East". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
- ISBN 978-1-55753-728-7.
- ^ Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2009, CBS. "Table 2.24 – Jews, by country of origin and age" (PDF). Retrieved 22 March 2010.
- ^ The Jewish Population of the World, The Jewish Virtual Library
- ^ "Morocco beckons to Jewish tourists". The Jerusalem Post. 7 May 2017.
- ^ "For the forgotten victims of Hate at Israel's Birth, a Memorial".
- ^ Ella Shohat: "Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the Standpoint of its Jewish Victims", Social Text, No.19/20 (1988), p. 32
- ^ "Op-Ed: No, Israel isn't a country of privileged and powerful white Europeans". Los Angeles Times. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2019.
- .
- ^ Barbara S. Okun, Orna Khait-Marelly. 2006. Socioeconomic Status and Demographic Behavior of Adult Multiethnics: Jews in Israel.
- Project MUSE 51913.
- JSTOR 351810.
- ^ "PERSONS AGED 18–39 STUDYING AT UNIVERSITIES,(1) BY DEGREE, AGE, SEX, POPULATION GROUP, RELIGION AND ORIGIN" (PDF). www.cbs.gov.il. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2007.
- ^ "97_gr_.xls" (PDF). Retrieved 21 January 2014.
- ^ Hebrew PDF Archived 17 December 2005 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Littman, Shany (19 May 2023). "'In Some Respects, Mizrahi Identity in Israel Is Dominant, and Ashkenazi Jews Face Inequality'". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 23 January 2024.
- PMID 10801975.
- S2CID 4307824.
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-0-300-16715-3.
- Zaken, Mordechai (2007). Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains in Kurdistan: A Study in Survival. Boston and Leiden: Brill.
- ISBN 978-1-78238-222-5.
External links
Organizations
- World Organization of Jews from Arab Countries
- Sephardic Pizmonim Project
- JIMENA – Jews Indigenous to the Middle East and North Africa
- Middle Eastern and North African Jews at the Multiculturalism Project
- Hakeshet Hademocratit Hamizrachit – an organization of Mizrahi Jews in Israel
- Harif: Association of Jews from the Middle East and North Africa (British-based)
- Ha' Yisrayli Torah Brith Yahad, Mizrahi Jewish Int'l Medical Humanitarian NGO recognized by the United Nations Civil Society and Economic Development Division (US-based)
- Sephardi Voices UK – audiovisual testimonies of Jews in the UK originally from the Middle East, North Africa and Iran
Articles
- Ella Shohat, Israeli Cinema: East/West and the Politics of Representation, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989; New Edition, London: I. B. Tauris, 2010).
- Ella Shohat, Le sionisme du point de vue de ses victimes juives: les juifs orientaux en Israel (first published in 1988, with a new introduction, La fabrique editions, Paris, 2006).
- Ella Shohat, Taboo Memories, Diasporic Voices (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006).
- Shohat, Ella (2003). "Rupture and Return: Zionist Discourse and the Study of Arab Jews". Social Text. 21 (2): 49–74. Project MUSE 43731.
- Shohat, Ella (1 October 1999). "The Invention of the Mizrahim". Journal of Palestine Studies. 29 (1): 5–20. JSTOR 2676427.
- Shohat, Ella (March 1997). "The narrative of the nation and the discourse of modernization: The case of the Mizrahim". Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies. 6 (10): 3–18. .
- Shohat, Ella (1992). "Rethinking Jews and Muslims: Quincentennial Reflections". Middle East Report (178): 25–29. JSTOR 3012984.
- Shohat, Ella (December 1992). "Staging the quincentenary: The middle east and the Americas". Third Text. 6 (21): 95–106. .
- Shohat, Ella (1988). "Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Jewish Victims". Social Text (19/20): 1–35. JSTOR 466176.
- Leibler, Anat (April 2014). "Disciplining ethnicity: Social sorting intersects with political demography in Israel's pre-state period". Social Studies of Science. 44 (2): 271–292. S2CID 44736417.
- Mizrahi Wanderings – Nancy Hawker on Samir Naqqash, one of Israel's foremost Arab-language Mizrahi novelists
- The Middle East's Forgotten Refugees A chronicle of Mizrahi refugees by Semha Alwaya
- The Forgotten Refugees
- Moshe Levy The story of an Iraqi Jew in the Israeli Navy and his survival on the war-ship Eilat
- My Life in Iraq Yeheskel Kojaman describes his life as an Iraqi Jew in the 1950s and 1960s
- Audio interview with Ammiel Alcalay discussing Mizrahi literature
- Excerpt from The Jews of Arab Lands in Modern Times by Norman Stillman
- Etan Bloom, The Reproduction of the Model "Oriental" in the Israeli Social Space; the 50s and the speedy immigration. Tel-Aviv Univ. M.A. in the Unit for Culture Research, 2003. (Hebrew, with summary in English.)
- Sasson-Levy, Orna; Shoshana, Avi (August 2013). "'Passing' as (Non)Ethnic: The I sraeli Version of Acting White". Sociological Inquiry. 83 (3): 448–472. .
- Saul Silas Fathi Full Circle: Escape From Baghdad and the Return by Saul Silas Fathi, A prominent Iraqi Jewish family's escape from persecution.
- Road From Damascus Archived 16 August 2011 at the Tablet Magazine
Communities
- Bukharian Jews Bukharian Jewish community (English and Russian)
- PersianRabbi.com Persian Jewish community
- Kurdish Jewry (Hebrew)
- The Babylonian Jewry Heritage Center Disseminating the 3000-year-old heritage of Babylonian Jewry (English and Hebrew)
- Iraqi Jews Iraqi American Jewish Community in New York. Perpetuating the history, heritage, culture and traditions of Babylonian Jewry.
- Sha'ar Binyamin Damascus Jewry (Hebrew and Spanish)
- Jews of Lebanon
- Historical Society of Jews from Egypt
- Harissa.com Tunisian Jewish site (French)
- Jewish Djerba[permanent dead link] Djerbian Jewish site (French)
- Zlabia.com Algerian Jewish site (French)
- Dafina.net Moroccan Jewish site (French)
- The Nash Didan Community Persian Azerbaijany, Aramaic speaking community (Hebrew, some English and Aramaic)