Modern Arabic literature

The instance that marked the shift in the whole of Arabic literature towards modern Arabic literature can be attributed to the Arab World-West contact during the 19th and early 20th century. This contact resulted in the gradual replacement of Classical Arabic forms with Western ones. Genres like plays, novels, and short stories were coming to the fore. Although the exact date in which this reformation in literary production occurred is unknown, the rise of modern Arabic literature was "inseparable"^[1] from the Nahda,^[2] also referred to as the Arab Renaissance.

Aleppine writer Qustaki al-Himsi (1858–1941) is credited with having founded modern Arabic literary criticism, with one of his works, The researcher's source in the science of criticism.^[3][4]

Context

The development that Arabic Literature witnessed by the end of the 19th century was not merely in the form of reformation; for both maronite Germanos Farhat (died 1732) and al-Allusi in Iraq had previously attempted to inflict some change on Arabic literature in the 18th century. On the other hand, modern Arabic literature fully appeared through the interdependence between two important movements: the revival of the classical Arabic tradition and the translation of foreign literature. Advocates of the former movement began their work at the onset of the 19th century to resist the decline Arabic literature and its styles were facing.

High quality traditional literary models were thus disseminated and imitated to create new literary models. Meanwhile, proponents of the translation movement included an array of authors such as Nasif al-Yaziji (1800–1871) from Lebanon, Ali Mubarak (born 1823 or 1824; died 1893) from Egypt, and Mahmoud Shukri al-Alusi (died 1923) from Iraq. Both Mubarak and al-Yaziji wrote the maqamat (lengthy literary works of rhymed prose) Alam Eddin and Majma' al-Bahrain (Where Two Seas Meet) respectively, while al-Alusi authored Balaghat al-Arab (The Eloquence of the Arabs). Other factors, including journalism and the literature of the diaspora, helped in shaping and developing Arabic literature.^[5]

Translations

The translation movement began on the hands of Governor

Most of the early novels to have been translated into Arabic were of French origins. Famous works including Alexandre Dumas's Le Comte de Monte Cristo, Jules Verne's Cinq Semaines en Ballon, and many others from different genres, were readily translated and Arabized and found a large readership through their circulation in journals.^[7]

Schools that were established in Beirut and Tunisia for authorship and translation affected, and were in turn influenced by, the direct impact of missionaries in Lebanon. These Lebanese missionaries were led by Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq (born 1805 or 1806; died 1887), Butrus al-Bustani (1819–1883), Ibrahim al-Yaziji (1847–1906), and, from Tunisia, Mohamed Bayram V (1840–1889). All of these missionaries helped in the creation of Arabic journalism, which was the main force (second to the revival of traditional Arabic literature and the translation movement) in initiating the new literary movement. In Egypt, journalism, first aided by intellectuals from the Levant, and later becoming a genuine Egyptian endeavor, was considered the pivotal ingredient that polished new literary styles and helped in the dissemination of ideas and opinions. Such was the natural and organic atmosphere for the development of modern Arabic literature.^[5]

The translation movement also revived on the hands of the literary figures of the

Translation also influenced the Arabic repertoire of imageries and ideas. Most importantly, it introduced new literary genres, such as novels, plays, short stories, articles, etc. The first effect of translation was in the adaptations of foreign plays. It began with Maroun al-Naqqash's (died 1855) adaptation of Molière, and Najib Haddad's (died 1866) translations of Pierre Corneille, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, and William Shakespeare. However, the most successful attempts in the adaptations of foreign dramas were on the hands of Muhammad Othman Jalal (died 1898), who adapted from Molière, and Arabized the novel Paul et Virginie. Despite all these efforts, the play, as a distinct literary genre, did not reach its full popularity until the 20th century.^[5]

Journalism

In the final thirty years of the 19th century, the growth of journalism helped in the emergence of notable figures in literature. It also created a comprehensive image of the stages of the development of the literary prose genres-excluding poetry- until World War I. On the pages of newspapers and journals met the powerful classical prose of Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905), and the nationalist-laden expressive prose of Saad Zaghloul in Al-Waqa'i' al-Misriyya (Egyptian Affairs) newspaper. Was also seen Muhammad al-Muwailihi's rhyming prose (died 1930), Mustafa Lutfi al-Manfaluti's sweet romantic prose (1876–1924), as well as the works of Jurji Zaydan (1861–1914), Yagob Sarrof (died 1927), and Qasim Amin (1863–1908) that relied on uniform ideas and lucid expressions to perform social-educational purposes.^[5]

As for romantic valor (hamasah), such as the works of Mustafa Kamil (1874–1908) and Wali Eddin Yakun (died 1921), this genre first appeared in journals. Other genres such as sardonic narratives mixed with colloquialisms, as in the works of Yaqub Sanu (1839–1912) and Abdullah al-Nadim (died 1896), gained their socio-literary power from appearing in journals.^[5]

19th and 20th century

Through the 19th century and early 20th centuries, a number of new developments in Arabic literature started to emerge, initially sticking closely to the classical forms, but addressing modern themes and the challenges faced by the Arab world in the modern era.

Jurji Zaydan (1861–1914) developed the genre of the Arabic historical novel. May Ziadeh (1886–1941) was also a key figure in the early 20th century Arabic literary scene.

A group of young writers formed The New School, and in 1925 began publishing the weekly literary journal Al-Fajr (The Dawn), which would have a great impact on Arabic literature. The group was especially influenced by 19th-century Russian writers such as

An example of modern poetry in classical Arabic style with themes of

Arabic literature was not entirely lacking of narrative prose. There existed many lengthy works of literature such as Kitab al-Aghani (The Book of Songs) by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani, Qisas al-anbiya'a (The Stories of Prophets) by al-Tha'alibi, as well as the eloquent maqama. This latter work, characterized by its embellishing rhythmic prose style, is thought to be the invention of Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadani's (969–1007).^[7]

The realization of the novel underwent extensive efforts to reach its full, complete form. The first attempts in writing novels were on the hands of Jurji Zaydan in his historical novel Sukot (Silence), and Farah Antun's (1874–1922) experimentation in the analytical novel. Other writers benefited from the foreign repertoire in discussing social and political matters. Non-fiction Arabic books were hence written to reflect new current concerns as well as the authors' thoughts and convictions. This is clearly present in the writings of Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi (born 1854 or 1855; died 1902) in Taba'i al-Istibdad wa-Masari' al-Isti'bad (The Nature of Despotism) and Umm al-Qura, as well as Qasim Amin's Tahrir al-Mar'a (The Liberation of the Woman). Authors like Aisha Taymur (died 1902) and Malak Hifni Nasif (died 1918) were also inspired by the foreign cultures but maintained—along with Qasim Amin—an Islamic and didactic spirit.^[5]

Poetry, on the other hand, was not affected by foreign models until

Ibrahim al-Mazini (born 1889 or 1890; died 1949) was probably among the most prominent authors who employed his style in the production of new literary themes, when he wrote his successful social novel Ibrahim al-Kateb (Ibrahim the Writer), which was essentially a description of current social norms. Since then, the novel flourished through the contributions of many authors like: Tawfiq al-Hakim in Awdat erroh (The Return of the Spirit, 1933), followed by Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad's Sara (1933), Taymour's Nida'a al-Majhoul (The Call of the Unknown, 1939), while Muhammad Farid Abu Hadid wrote the all-Arabic novel Ibnat al-Muluk (The Daughter of Kings). The success this novel attained later supported Zaydan in his own endeavors.^[5]

As for the psycho-analytical novel, it was introduced by Taha Hussein for the first time in his autobiographical novel Al-Ayyam (The Days, 1926). This novel was one of the greatest works of modern Arabic literature with its themes, style and depiction of life.^[5]

Short stories and articles

Authors in Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, and the

As is the case with other literary genres, the first accounts of plays during that period were in the form of translations and adaptations of Western works. Gradually, however, the stage, particularly in Egypt, reached its full potency as Egyptian dramatist began writing plays that reflected the current socio-political situation of the country and its people. A major theme that was recurrent in most of the plays was the West-East struggle; an issue that seemed to have both coincided and aggravated the search for an Egyptian national identity.[7]

The shift towards realism that took place in writing the novel extended to the play. Dramatic plays, particularly in Egypt, flourished immensely, and subsequently dominated the rest of the Arab world.^[5] In that reals, Mahmoud Taymour was the first to experiment with the social realist play, but it did not reach its full potency except on the hands of Tawfiq al-Hakim, who mastered motifs and mental representations, utilized Pharaonic, Islamic, and Western myths, and wrote remarkable cognitive plays such as Ahl al-Kahf (The People of the Cave), and Scheherazade. He also wrote social plays including Al-Sultan al-Ha'er (the Bewildered Sultan). Shawqi's contributions to the poetic theater, taken up later by Aziz Abaza, are noticeable for their dealing with historical and classical themes.^[5]

The employment of colloquial Arabic within the dialogues of the plays was a central issue in studying Arab litterateurs and their motives behind such act. The issue, however, was not as prominent in novels and stories as it was in plays. Nevertheless, al-Hakim and Taymour both tried to utilize colloquialisms in dialogues in both novels and stories, yet their success did not stop the debate that had risen as a result. In fact, it led Taymour to refrain from using colloquialisms in his writings, and he rewrote his previous works by replacing any colloquialisms with Modern Standard Arabic. Despite many efforts to create a distinct colloquial literature, particularly in Lebanon, all attempts failed. Reaching a necessary compromise between the two was done by simplifying the Standard form and elevating the status of the colloquial. However, judgments of this issue and its implications are yet to be explored, although some argue that the use of colloquialism in Arabic drama is a direct result from the interaction with the Western forms of literary production.^[2][5]

Both the spread of education and of Standard Arabic offered solutions for the instability the Arabic status was facing. Some of these solutions were due to the journal article as it created a new form of prose, characterized by precision and an ability to portray reality in a way that surpassed eloquent prose, where meaning in the latter is not definite, and gives the sense of the older era of Arabia. Through this new variety of language, the modern author was now able to find in the Standard form of Arabic many specific expressions that allowed him to portray reality.^[5]

Poetry

Poetry made way for prose, particularly after the war. While the influence of Western literature accelerated the production of innovative literary prose in Arabic, poetry was slower in liberating itself from classical poetic forms and creating new rhythms and melodic moods. As classical Arabic poetry held an important position in the literary heritage of the Arabs, it is not surprising that the first attempts in renewing the poetic forms would be by a re-employment of these traditional forms.^[2][5]

Insofar as Suleyman al-Boustani's (died 1925) attempt in introducing new forms by a rather mediocre translation of the Iliad into Arabic, the role it played was weaker than to be mentioned in the movement towards reformation.^[5]

Nationalist poetry was an important element in the progression of modern verse, whose doyen is Tunisian poet

The result of these efforts was a powerful Romantic poetry (ghazal). The pioneers of this type of poetry were the members of the Apollo Group. Led by Ahmed Zaki Abu Shadi (died 1955), and competing against the New School of Khalil Mutran in Egypt, and Elias Abu Shabaki's in Lebanon, the Diwan Poets, and the Leagues, the Apollo Group was more liberated and largely influenced by Western Romanticism.^[5] The Apollo Group's contributions to the new, unrestricted forms of poetry is largely manifested in the periodical 'Apollo', a magazine that fostered and proliferated both traditional and innovative styles of poetry.^[2]

While al-Aqqad and other poets in Iraq remained faithful to classical forms of poetry, others, including poet Abdel Rahman Shokry, the Northern Diaspora School, and the Apollo Group, all diverted greatly from these traditional forms. In fact, the argument that existed between the proponents of Classical poetry who favored the single-rhyme and meter poem, and those advocated the free verse poem (shi'r hurr) remains till this day. A few years later, the prose poem appeared in the 1970s. Writers of this hybrid form were Ameen al-Rihani, Onsy Al-Hajj, and Shawqi Abi Shaqra (Lebanon), Jabra Ibrahim Jabra, Tawfiq Al-Sayegh, Ezz Eddin al-Munasira (Palestine), Muhammad al-Maghut (Syria), Sargon Boulus, Fadil Al-Azzawi, Mu'ayyid al-Rawi (Iraq). Al-Rawi created a new genre in Arabic poetry by liberating it from rhythm and metre, and replacing that with inner music, while maintaining the original imageries.^[5]

Themes

Social themes

Social themes along with reformations in the field of poetry were not greatly affected despite the attempts some poets such as

Since the 1990s, Arabic exile literature (adab al-manfa) in Europe and elsewhere has increasingly become a literature written from the perspective of refugees, asylum seekers, undocumented migrants and others, who are situated outside normatively defined citizenship. In her book Arabic Exile Literature in Europe, Johanna Sellman, assistant professor of Arabic Literature at Ohio State University, analysed the changing aesthetic and political dimensions of Arabic exile literature and demonstrated how frameworks such as East-West cultural encounters, political commitment and modernist understandings of exile – which were dominant in 20th-century Arabic exile literature – have been giving way to writing that explores the dynamics of forced migration and the liminal spaces of borders and borderlands.^[14][15]

Notes

References