Modern Greek
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Modern Greek | |
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Νέα Ελληνικά | |
Pronunciation | [ˈne.a eliniˈka] |
Native to | Greece Cyprus Albania (Southern Albania) Turkey (Anatolia) Italy (Calabria, Salento) |
Region | Eastern Mediterranean |
Ethnicity | Greeks |
Native speakers | 13.4 million (2012)[1] |
Indo-European
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Early forms | |
Standard forms |
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Dialects |
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Greek alphabet Greek Braille | |
Official status | |
Official language in | |
Recognised minority language in | |
Regulated by | Center for the Greek Language |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | el |
ISO 639-2 | gre (B) ell (T) |
ISO 639-3 | ell |
Glottolog | mode1248 |
Linguasphere | part of 56-AAA-a |
Modern Greek (
During most of the Modern Greek period, the language existed in a situation of
Varieties
Varieties of Modern Greek include Demotic, Katharevousa, Pontic, Cappadocian, Mariupolitan, Southern Italian, Yevanic, Tsakonian and Greco-Australian.
Demotic
Strictly speaking, Demotic or Dimotiki (Δημοτική), refers to all popular varieties of Modern Greek that followed a common evolutionary path from
.Today, a standardized variety of Demotic Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus, and is referred to as "Standard Modern Greek", or less strictly simply as "Greek", "Modern Greek", or "Demotic".
Demotic Greek comprises various regional varieties with minor linguistic differences, mainly in phonology and vocabulary. Due to the high degree of mutual intelligibility of these varieties, Greek linguists refer to them as "idioms" of a wider "Demotic dialect", known as "Koine Modern Greek" (Koiní Neoellinikí - 'common Neo-Hellenic'). Most English-speaking linguists however refer to them as "dialects", emphasizing degrees of variation only when necessary. Demotic Greek varieties are divided into two main groups, Northern and Southern.
The main distinguishing feature common to Northern variants is a set of standard phonological shifts in unaccented vowel phonemes: [o] becomes [u], [e] becomes [i], and [i] and [u] are dropped. The dropped vowels' existence is implicit, and may affect surrounding phonemes: for example, a dropped [i] palatalizes preceding consonants, just like an [i] that is pronounced. Southern variants do not exhibit these phonological shifts.
Examples of Northern dialects are Rumelian (Constantinople), Epirote, Macedonian,[9] Thessalian, Thracian, Northern Euboean, Sporades, Samos, Smyrna, and Sarakatsanika. The Southern category is divided into groups that include:
- Old Athenian-Maniot: Megara, Aegina, Athens, Cyme (Old Athenian) and Mani Peninsula (Maniot)
- Ionian-Peloponnesian: Peloponnese (except Mani), Ionian Islands, Attica, Boeotia, and Southern Euboea
- Cretan-Cycladian: Cyclades, Crete, and several enclaves in Syria and Lebanon[citation needed]
- Southeastern: Ikaria, Dodecanese, and Cyprus.
Demotic Greek has officially been taught in
Katharevousa
Katharevousa (Καθαρεύουσα) is a
Katharevousa is written in
Pontic
Pontic (Ποντιακά) was originally spoken along the mountainous Black Sea coast of Turkey, the so-called
Cappadocian
Cappadocian (Καππαδοκικά) is a Greek dialect of central Turkey of the same fate as Pontic; its speakers settled in mainland Greece after the Greek genocide (1919–1921) and the later Population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923. Cappadocian Greek diverged from the other Byzantine Greek dialects earlier, beginning with the Turkish conquests of central Asia Minor in the 11th and 12th centuries, and so developed several radical features, such as the loss of the gender for nouns.[10] Having been isolated from the crusader conquests (Fourth Crusade) and the later Venetian influence of the Greek coast, it retained the Ancient Greek terms for many words that were replaced with Romance ones in Demotic Greek.[10] The poet Rumi, whose name means "Roman", referring to his residence amongst the "Roman" Greek speakers of Cappadocia, wrote a few poems in Cappadocian Greek, one of the earliest attestations of the dialect.[11][12][13][14]
Mariupolitan
Ruméika (Ρωμαίικα) or Mariupolitan Greek is a dialect spoken in about 17 villages around the northern coast of the
Southern Italian
Southern Italian or Italiot (Κατωιταλιώτικα) comprises both
in 700 BC.It has received significant Koine Greek influence through
Yevanic
Yevanic (יעואניקה, Γεβανικά) is an almost extinct language of Romaniote Jews. The language was already in decline for centuries until most of its speakers were killed in the Holocaust. Afterward, the language was mostly kept by remaining Romaniote emigrants to Israel, where it was displaced by modern Hebrew.
Tsakonian
Tsakonian (Τσακωνικά) is spoken in its full form today only in a small number of villages around the town of Leonidio in the region of Arcadia in the Southern Peloponnese, and partially spoken further afield in the area. Tsakonian evolved directly from Laconian (ancient Spartan) and therefore descends from Doric Greek.
It has limited input from Hellenistic Koine and is significantly different from and not mutually intelligible with other Greek varieties (such as Demotic Greek and Pontic Greek). Some linguists consider it a separate language because of this.
Greco-Australian
Greco-Australian is an Australian-based dialect of Greek that is spoken by the Greek diaspora of Australia, including Greek immigrants living in Australia and Australians of Greek descent.[18]
Phonology and orthography
A series of radical sound changes starting in Koine Greek has led to a phonological system in Modern Greek that is significantly different from that of Ancient Greek. Instead of the complex vowel system of Ancient Greek, with its four vowel-height levels, length distinction, and multiple diphthongs, Modern Greek has a simple system of five vowels. This came about through a series of mergers, especially towards /i/ (iotacism).
Modern Greek consonants are plain (voiceless unaspirated)
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Use in other languages | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Modern Greek is written in the Greek alphabet, which has 24 letters, each with a capital and lowercase (small) form. The letter
A number of diacritical signs were used until 1982, when they were officially dropped from Greek spelling as no longer corresponding to the modern pronunciation of the language. Monotonic orthography is today used in official usage, in schools and for most purposes of everyday writing in Greece. Polytonic orthography, besides being used for older varieties of Greek, is still used in book printing, especially for academic and belletristic purposes, and in everyday use by some conservative writers and elderly people. The Greek Orthodox Church continues to use polytonic and the late Christodoulos of Athens[21] and the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece[22] have requested the reintroduction of polytonic as the official script.
The Greek vowel letters and digraphs with their pronunciations are: ⟨α⟩ /a/, ⟨ε, αι⟩ /e/, ⟨η, ι, υ, ει, οι, υι⟩ /i/, ⟨ο, ω⟩ /o/, and ⟨ου⟩ /u/. The digraphs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced /av/, /ev/, and /iv/ respectively before vowels and voiced consonants, and /af/, /ef/ and /if/ respectively before voiceless consonants.
The Greek letters ⟨φ⟩, ⟨β⟩, ⟨θ⟩, and ⟨δ⟩ are pronounced /f/, /v/, /θ/, and /ð/ respectively. The letters ⟨γ⟩ and ⟨χ⟩ are pronounced /ɣ/ and /x/, respectively. All those letters represent fricatives in Modern Greek, but they were used for occlusives with the same (or with a similar) articulation point in Ancient Greek. Before mid or close front vowels (/e/ and /i/), ⟨γ⟩ and ⟨χ⟩ are fronted, becoming [ʝ] and [ç], respectively, which, in some dialects, notably those of Crete and Mani, are further fronted to [ʑ] or [ʒ] and [ɕ] or [ʃ], respectively. Μoreover, before mid or close back vowels (/o/ and /u/), ⟨γ⟩ tends to be pronounced further back than a prototypical velar, between a velar [ɣ] and an uvular [ʁ] (transcribed ɣ̄). The letter ⟨ξ⟩ stands for the sequence /ks/ and ⟨ψ⟩ for /ps/.
The digraphs ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are generally pronounced [ɡ], but are fronted to [ɟ] before front vowels (/e/ and /i/) and tend to be pronounced [ɡ̄] before the back vowels (/o/ and /u/). When these digraphs are preceded by a vowel, they are pronounced [ŋɡ] and [ɲɟ] before front vowels (/e/ and /i/) and [ŋ̄ɡ̄] before the back (/o/ and /u/). The digraph ⟨γγ⟩ may be pronounced [ŋɣ] in some words ([ɲʝ] before front vowels and [ŋ̄ɣ̄] before back ones). The pronunciation [ŋk] for the digraph ⟨γκ⟩ is extremely rare, but could be heard in literary and scholarly words or when reading ancient texts (by a few readers); normally it retains its "original" pronunciation [ŋk] only in the trigraph ⟨γκτ⟩, where ⟨τ⟩ prevents the sonorization of ⟨κ⟩ by ⟨γ⟩ (hence [ŋkt]).
Syntax and morphology
Modern Greek is largely a synthetic language. Modern Greek and Albanian are the only two modern Indo-European languages that retain a synthetic passive (the North Germanic passive is a recent innovation based on a grammaticalized reflexive pronoun).
Differences from Classical Greek
Modern Greek has changed from Classical Greek in morphology and syntax, losing some features and gaining others.
Features lost:
- dative case
- optative mood
- infinitive
- dual number
- participles (except the perfect middle-passive participle)
- third person imperative
- reduplicative perfect
Features gained:
- gerund
- modal particle θα (a contraction of ἐθέλω ἵνα → θέλω να → θε' να → θα), which marks future tense and conditional mood
- auxiliary verb forms for certain verb forms (in particular the perfect tense)
- aspectual distinction in future tense between imperfective (present) and perfective (aorist)
Modern Greek has developed a simpler system of grammatical prefixes marking tense and aspect of a verb, such as augmentation and reduplication, and has lost some patterns of noun declension and some distinct forms in the declensions.
Most of these features are shared with other languages spoken in the Balkan peninsula (see Balkan sprachbund), although Greek does not show all typical Balkan areal features, such as the postposed article.
Because of the influence of Katharevousa, however, Demotic is not commonly used in its purest form. Archaisms are still widely used, especially in writing and in more formal speech, as well as in some everyday expressions, such as the dative εντάξει ('okay', literally 'in order') or the third person imperative ζήτω! ('long live!').
Sample text
The following is a sample text in Modern Greek of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):
Άρθρο 1:
Arthro 1:
Árthro 1:
[ˈarθro ˈena ‖
Όλοι
Oloi
Óli
ˈoli
οι
oi
i
i
άνθρωποι
anthropoi
ánthropi
ˈanθropi
γεννιούνται
genniountai
yeniúnde
ʝeˈɲunde
ελεύθεροι
eleutheroi
eléftheri
eˈlefθeri
και
kai
ke
ce
ίσοι
isoi
ísi
ˈisi
στην
stin
stin
stin
αξιοπρέπεια
axioprepeia
aksioprépia
aksioˈprepia
και
kai
ke
ce
τα
ta
ta
ta
δικαιώματα.
dikaiomata.
dhikeómata.
ðiceˈomata ‖
Είναι
Einai
Íne
ˈine
προικισμένοι
proikismenoi
prikizméni
priciˈzmeni
με
me
me
me
λογική
logiki
loyikí
loʝiˈci
και
kai
ke
ce
συνείδηση,
syneidisi,
sinídhisi,
siˈniðisi |
και
kai
ke
ce
οφείλουν
ofeiloun
ofílun
oˈfilun
να
na
na
na
συμπεριφέρονται
symperiferontai
simberiféronde
simberiˈferonde
μεταξύ
metaxy
metaksí
metaˈksi
τους
tous
tus
tuz
με
me
me
me
πνεύμα
pneuma
pnévma
ˈpnevma
αδελφοσύνης.
adelfosynis.
adhelfosínis.
aðelfoˈsinis]
Article 1: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
References
- ^ (protected language)
- ^ "Greek". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (18 ed.). 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-415-23671-3.
It is difficult to know how many ethnic Greeks there are in Albania. The Greek government, it is typically claimed, says there are around 300,000 ethnic Greeks in Albania, but most Western estimates are around the 200,000 mark ...
- ^ a b c "Reservations and Declarations for Treaty No.148 - European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages". Official Website of the Council of Europe. Council of Europe. Retrieved 5 April 2020.
- ^ "Greek in Hungary". Database for the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Public Foundation for European Comparative Minority Research. Archived from the original on 29 April 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
- ^ "Italy: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013.
The Greek Italian community numbers some 30,000 and is concentrated mainly in central Italy. The age-old presence in Italy of Italians of Greek descent – dating back to Byzantine and Classical times – is attested to by the Griko dialect, which is still spoken in the Magna Graecia region. This historically Greek-speaking villages are Condofuri, Galliciano, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Bova and Bova Marina, which are in the Calabria region (the capital of which is Reggio). The Grecanic region, including Reggio, has a population of some 200,000, while speakers of the Griko dialect number fewer that 1,000 persons.
- ^ "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 - Chapter 1: Founding Provisions". www.gov.za. Retrieved 6 December 2014.
- ISBN 9789004244740..
- ISBN 0-521-08497-0
- ISBN 9780792352907.
- ^ a b c Dawkins, R.M. (1916). Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of dialect of Silli, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Δέδες, Δ. 1993. Ποιήματα του Μαυλανά Ρουμή. Τα Ιστορικά 10.18–19: 3–22. (in Greek)
- ^ Meyer, G. 1895. Die griechischen Verse in Rabâbnâma. Byzantinische Zeitschrift 4: 401–411. (in German)
- ^ "Greek Verses of Rumi & Sultan Walad". Archived from the original on 8 October 2017.
- ^ The Greek Poetry of Jalaluddin Rumi
- ^ Dawkins, Richard M. "The Pontic dialect of Modern Greek in Asia Minor and Russia". Transactions of the Philological Society 36.1 (1937): 15–52.
- ^ "Greeks of the Steppe". The Washington Post. 10 November 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
- ^ Kontosopoulos (2008), 109
- ^ Kalimniou, Dean (29 June 2020). "Tongues of Greek Australia: An Anglicised Hellenic language". Neos Kosmos. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
- ^ cf. Iotacism
- ISBN 1-58603-360-3
- ^ ""Φιλιππικός" Χριστόδουλου κατά του μονοτονικού συστήματος". in.gr News. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
- ^ "Την επαναφορά του πολυτονικού ζητά η Διαρκής Ιερά Σύνοδος". in.gr News. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
Further reading
- Ανδριώτης (Andriotis), Νικόλαος Π. (Nikolaos P.) (1995). Ιστορία της ελληνικής γλώσσας: (τέσσερις μελέτες) (History of the Greek language: four studies). Θεσσαλονίκη (ISBN 960-231-058-8.
- Vitti, Mario (2001). Storia della letteratura neogreca. Roma: Carocci. ISBN 88-430-1680-6.
External links
- Portal for the Greek Language (modern & ancient) of the Center for the Greek Language
- Hellenic National Corpus of the Institute for Language & Speech Processing
- Audio example of Modern Greek
Courses
- Online course "Filoglossia" by ILSP
- Greek online course "Greek by Radio" from Cyprus radio broadcasting CyBC in English, 105 lessons with Real audio files
Dictionaries and glossaries
- Greek–English Dictionary Georgacas for Modern Greek Literature
- Triantafyllides Dictionary for Standard Modern Greek (Lexicon of the Modern Greek Koine)
- Modern Greek - English glossary
- English–Greek Dictionary (Modern Greek) Archived 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine
Grammar
- Illustrated Modern Greek grammar Archived 2019-07-11 at the Wayback Machine[dead link]
Institutes
- Official website of the Center for the Greek Language
- Institute of Modern Greek Studies of the Manolis Triandaphyllidis Foundation at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
- Center for the Research of the Modern Greek Dialects and Idioms of the Academy of Athens (modern)
- The Cyprus Linguistics Society (CyLing)
- Institute for Language & Speech Processing