Yoga as exercise
Yoga as exercise is a physical activity consisting mainly of
Posture is described in the
Postures were not central in any of the older traditions of yoga; posture practice was revived in the 1920s by yoga gurus including
Haṭha yoga's non-postural practices such as its
History
Yoga's origins
The
Haṭha yoga
Haṭha yoga flourished among secretive ascetic groups such as
Early influences
According to one theory, the system of physical education practised in the 19th-century
From the 1850s onwards, there developed in India a culture of physical exercise to counter the colonial stereotype of supposed "degeneracy" of Indians compared to the British,
Introduction to the West
Yoga was introduced to the Western world by the spiritual leader
In 1924, the yoga teacher
In 1925, Kuvalayananda's rival Paramahansa Yogananda, having moved from India to America, set up the Self-Realization Fellowship in Los Angeles, and taught yoga, including asanas, breathing, chanting and meditation, to "tens of thousands of Americans".[58] In 1923, Yogananda's younger brother, Bishnu Charan Ghosh, founded the Ghosh College of Yoga and Physical Culture in Calcutta.[28]
Among Krishnamacharya's pupils were people who became influential yoga teachers themselves: the Russian Eugenie V. Peterson, known as
Other Indian schools of yoga took up the new style of asanas, but continued to emphasize Haṭha yoga's spiritual goals and practices to varying extents. The
Worldwide commodity
Three changes around the 1960s allowed yoga as exercise to become a worldwide
From the 1970s, yoga as exercise spread across many countries of the world, changing as it did so, and becoming "an integral part of (primarily) urban cultures worldwide", to the extent that the word yoga in the Western world now means the practice of asanas, typically in a class.
The market for yoga grew, argues the scholar of religion
Jain states that yoga is becoming "part of the pop culture around the world".[94] Alter writes that it illustrates "transnational transmutation and the blurring of consumerism, holistic health, and embodied mysticism—as well as good old-fashioned Orientalism."[95] Singleton argues that the commodity is the yoga body itself, its "spiritual possibility"[96] signified by the "lucent skin of the yoga model",[96] a beautiful image endlessly sold back to the yoga-practising public "as an irresistible commodity of the holistic, perfectible self".[96]
In 2008, the United States Department of Health and Human Services labelled September as National Yoga Month.[97] From 2015, at the suggestion of India's Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, an annual International Day of Yoga has been held on 21 June.[98]
Transformation
The anthropologist
Practices
Asanas
Yoga as exercise consists largely but not exclusively of the practice of asanas. The numbers of asanas described (not just named) in some major Haṭha yoga and modern texts are shown in the table; all the Haṭha yoga text dates are approximate.[106]
No. of asanas | Text | Date | Evidence supplied |
---|---|---|---|
2 | Goraksha Shataka |
10th-11th century | Describes Siddhasana, Padmasana;[107][108] a "symbolic"[d] 84 claimed |
4 | Shiva Samhita | 15th century | 4 seated asanas described, 84 claimed; 11 mudras[14] |
15 | Hatha Yoga Pradipika | 15th century | 15 asanas described, |
32 | Gheranda Samhita | 17th century | Descriptions of 32 seated, backbend, twist, balancing and inverted asanas, 25 mudras.[111][14] |
52 | Hatha Ratnavali | 17th century | 52 asanas described, out of 84 named[e][112][113] |
84 | Joga Pradipika | 1830 | 84 asanas and 24 mudras in rare illustrated edition of 18th century text[114] |
37 | Yoga Sopana |
1905 | Describes and illustrates with halftone plates 37 asanas, 6 mudras, 5 bandhas[114] |
~200 | Light on Yoga B. K. S. Iyengar |
1966 | Detailed descriptions and multiple photographs of each asana[115] |
908 | Master Yoga Chart Dharma Mittra |
1984 | Photographs of each asana[116] |
2100 | 2,100 Asanas Mr. Yoga |
2015 | Photographs of each asana[117] |
Asanas can be classified in different ways, which may overlap: for example, by the position of the head and feet (standing, sitting, reclining, inverted), by whether balancing is required, or by the effect on the spine (forward bend, backbend, twist), giving a set of asana types agreed by most authors.[118][119][120][121] The yoga guru Dharma Mittra uses his own categories such as "Floor & Supine Poses".[122] Yogapedia and Yoga Journal add "Hip-opening"; the yoga teacher Darren Rhodes, Yogapedia and Yoga Journal also add "Core strength."[123][124][125]
Styles
The number of
These aspects can be illustrated by schools with distinctive styles. For example,
Alongside the yoga brands, many teachers, for example in England, offer an unbranded "hatha yoga",
The tradition begun by Krishnamacharya survives at the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram in Chennai; his son T. K. V. Desikachar and his grandson Kausthub Desikachar continued to teach in small groups, coordinating asana movements with the breath, and personalising the teaching according to the needs of individual students.[126][133]
Sessions
Yoga sessions vary widely depending on the school and style,
Hybrids
The evolution of yoga as exercise is not confined to the creation of new asanas and linking vinyasa sequences. A
Purposes
Exercise
The energy cost of exercise is measured in units of metabolic equivalent of task (MET). Less than 3 METs counts as light exercise; 3 to 6 METs is moderate; 6 or over is vigorous. American College of Sports Medicine and American Heart Association guidelines count periods of at least 10 minutes of moderate MET level activity towards their recommended daily amounts of exercise.[143][144] For healthy adults aged 18 to 65, the guidelines recommend moderate exercise for 30 minutes five days a week,[145] or vigorous aerobic exercise for 20 minutes three days a week.[144]
Treated as a form of exercise, a complete yoga session with asanas and pranayama provides 3.3 ± 1.6 METs, on average a moderate workout. Surya Namaskar ranged from a light 2.9 to a vigorous 7.4 METs;[g] the average for a session of yoga practice without Surya Namaskar was a light 2.9 ± 0.8 METs.[h][143]
Physical or Hindu
Since the mid-20th century, yoga has been used, especially in the Western world, as physical exercise for fitness and suppleness,
Authorities differ on whether yoga is purely exercise.
However, Haṭha yoga's "ecstatic ... transcendent ... possibly subversive" elements remain in yoga used as exercise.
In a secular context, the journalists Nell Frizzell and Reni Eddo-Lodge have debated (in The Guardian) whether Western yoga classes represent "cultural appropriation." In Frizzell's view, yoga has become a new entity, a long way from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and while some practitioners are culturally insensitive, others treat it with more respect. Eddo-Lodge agrees that Western yoga is far from Patanjali, but argues that the changes cannot be undone, whether people use it "as a holier-than-thou tool, as a tactic to balance out excessive drug use, or practised similarly to its origins with the spirituality that comes with it."[163] Jain argues however that charges of appropriation "from 'the East' to 'the West'" fail to take account of the fact that yoga is evolving in a shared multinational process; it is not something that is being stolen from one place by another.[164]
Health
Yoga as exercise has been popularized in the Western world by claims about its health benefits.
The impact of yoga as exercise on physical and mental health has been a topic of systematic studies (evaluating primary research), although a 2014 report found that, despite its common practice and possible health benefits, it remained "extremely understudied."[168] A systematic review of six studies found that Iyengar yoga is effective at least in the short term for both neck pain and low back pain.[169] A review of six studies found benefits for depression, but noted that the studies' methods imposed limitations,[170] while a clinical practice guideline from the American Cancer Society stated that yoga may reduce anxiety and stress in people with cancer.[171] A 2015 systematic review called for more rigour in clinical trials of the effect of yoga on mood and measures of stress.[172]
The practice of asanas has been claimed to improve flexibility, strength, and balance; to alleviate stress and anxiety, and to reduce the symptoms of
A 2015 systematic review noted that yoga may be effective in alleviating symptoms of
Secular religion
From its origins in the 1920s, yoga used as exercise has had a "spiritual" aspect which is not necessarily neo-Hindu; its assimilation with
1. a separation phase (detaching from the world outside);[186][187]
2. a transition or liminal state; and[186][187]
3. an incorporation or postliminal state.[186][187]
For the separation phase, the yoga session begins by going into a neutral and if possible a secluded practice hall; worries, responsibilities, ego and shoes are all left outside;
The yoga scholar
In
Competition
The idea of
Business
By the 21st century, yoga as exercise had become a flourishing business,
Clothing and equipment
Fashion has entered the world of yoga, with brands such as
In India, participants typically wear loose-fitting clothes for yoga classes, while serious practitioners in yoga ashrams practice an arduous combination of exercise, meditation, selfless service, vegetarian diet and celibacy, making yoga a way of life.[210]
Holidays and training
Yoga holidays (vacations) are offered in "idyllic"[211] places around the world, including in Croatia, England, France, Greece, Iceland, Indonesia, India, Italy, Montenegro, Morocco, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Turkey.[211][212][213] In 2018, prices were up to £1,295 (about $1,500) for 6 days.[211]
Teacher training, as of 2017, could cost between $2,000 and $5,000.[202] It can take up to 3 years to obtain a teaching certificate.[214] Yoga training courses, as of 2017, were still unregulated in the UK;[215] the British Wheel of Yoga has been appointed the activity's official governing body by Sport England,[216] but it lacks power to compel training organisations, and many people are taking short unaccredited courses rather than one of the nine courses so far accredited.[214]
Copyright claims
Bikram Yoga has become a global brand,[217] and its founder, Bikram Choudhury, spent some ten years from 2002 attempting to establish copyright on the sequence of 26 postures used in Bikram Yoga, with some initial success. However, in 2012, the American federal court ruled that Bikram Yoga could not be copyrighted.[218] In 2015, after further legal action, the American court of appeals ruled that the yoga sequence and breathing exercises were not eligible for copyright protection.[219]
In culture
Literature
Yoga has found its way into types of literature as varied as
Kate Churchill's 2009 film Enlighten Up! follows an unemployed journalist for six months as, on the filmmaker's invitation, he travels the globe – New York, Boulder, California, Hawaii, India – to practise under yoga masters including Jois, Norman Allen,[j] and Iyengar. The critic Roger Ebert found it interesting and peaceful, if "not terribly eventful, but I suppose we wouldn't want a yoga thriller". He commented: "I'm glad I saw it. I enjoyed all the people I met during Nick's six-month quest. Most seemed cheerful and outgoing, and exuded good health. They smiled a lot. They weren't creepy true believers obsessed with converting everyone."[225][226]
Research
Yoga is becoming a subject of academic inquiry; many of the researchers are "
Academics have given yoga as exercise a variety of names, including "modern postural yoga" reflecting its emphasis on
Notes
- Modern Yoga" into "Modern Psychosomatic Yoga", "Modern Denominational Yoga", "Modern Postural Yoga" and "Modern Meditational Yoga".[2]
- Vishnudevananda's Anjaneyasana 2 is Iyengar's Hanumanasana; Anjani is Hanuman's mother, and Anjaneya is a matronymic for Hanuman.[76]
- De Michelis notes that to speakers of Indic languages, yoga has a "quite different" semantic range, including meditation, prayer, ritual and devotional practices, ethical behaviour, and "secret esoteric techniques" that average English speakers would not consider to be yoga.[80]
- signs of the zodiac, while in numerology, 7 is the sum of 3 and 4, and 12 is the product, i.e. 84 is (3+4)×(3×4).[109]
- ^ 84 names of asanas are listed; not all can now be identified.
- Haṭha yoga
- ^ Haskell, curious about the wide range of METs in Surya Namaskar, repeated the study (Mody) which gave the highest value; using "transition jumps, and full pushups", he obtained "agreement" with 6.4 METs.[144]
- ^ Asanas performed individually provide on average 2.2 ± 0.7 METs; pranayama types performed individually provide just 1.3 ± 0.3 METs.[143]
- Jain.[150]
- ^ Allen was the first American to be taught by Jois.[224]
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I thought of the naked yogis I had seen on the banks of the Ganges, their skin smeared with ashes from the cremation pyre to remind themselves of the body's impermanence, their foreheads painted with the insignia of Shiva, the god of destruction. I couldn't resist. "Well, traditionally, you would carry a trident and cover your body with the ashes of the dead," I told her. ... "But alternatively," I said, "a leotard and tights will work just fine."
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External links
- Modern Yoga Research website, managed by the scholars Elizabeth De Michelis, Suzanne Newcombe, and Mark Singleton
- What's behind the five popular yoga poses loved by the world? – a BBC Seriously... program and web page by Mukti Jain Campion