Muhammad

Muhammad
مُحَمَّد
"Muhammad, the Messenger of God" inscribed on the gates of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina
Personal
Born	c. 570 CE (53 BH)[1] Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
Died	(632-06-08)8 June 632 CE (11 AH; aged 61–62) Medina, Hejaz, Arabia
Resting place	Green Dome at the Prophet's Mosque, Medina, Arabia 24°28′03″N 39°36′41″E / 24.46750°N 39.61139°E / 24.46750; 39.61139 (Green Dome)
Spouse	See Wives of Muhammad
Children	See Children of Muhammad
Parents	Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (father) Amina bint Wahb (mother)
Known for	Establishing Islam
Other names	Rasul Allah ('Messenger of God') See Names and titles of Muhammad
Relatives	Ahl al-Bayt ('Family of the House') See Family tree of Muhammad
Epithet (Laqab)		Khātam al-Nabiyyīn ('Seal of the Prophets') خَاتَم ٱلنَّبِيِّين

Muhammad

Muhammad's followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the Hijrah, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The conquest went largely uncontested, and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.^[13][14]

The revelations (

.

Sources of biographical information

Main articles: Historiography of early Islam and Historicity of Muhammad

Quran

Main article: Muhammad in the Quran

The Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad.^[15][16][17] The Quran is mainly addressed to a single "Messenger of God" who is referred to as Muhammad in a number of verses. The Quranic text also describes the settlement of his followers in Yathrib after their expulsion by the Quraysh, and briefly mentions military encounters such as the Muslim victory at Badr.^[18]

The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammad's chronological biography; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context and timeline.^[19][20] Almost none of Muhammad's companions are mentioned by name in the Quran, hence not providing sufficient information for a concise biography.^[18] The Quran is considered to be contemporary with Muhammad, and the Birmingham manuscript has been radiocarbon dated to his lifetime, its discovery largely disproving Western revisionist theories about the Quran's origins.^[21][22]

Early biographies

Main article:

Prophetic biography

Important sources regarding Muhammad's life may be found in the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Hijri era (around the 8th and 9th century CE respectively).^[23] These include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which provide additional information about his life.^[24]

The earliest written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is

Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (d. 230 AH).^[23]

Many scholars accept these early biographies as authentic, though their accuracy is unascertainable.[25] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between traditions touching legal matters and purely historical events. In the legal group, traditions could have been subject to invention while historic events, aside from exceptional cases, may have been subject only to "tendential shaping".^[28]

Hadith

Main article: Hadith

Other important sources include the

Abu Dawood, Ibn Majah, Malik ibn Anas, al-Daraqutni.^[29][30]

Some Western academics cautiously view the hadith collections as accurate historical sources.

isnad); the lack of such a chain for the biographical literature makes it unverifiable in their eyes.^[32]

Pre-Islamic Arabia

Main articles: Pre-Islamic Arabia, Jahiliyyah, and Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia

The Arabian Peninsula was, and still is, largely arid with volcanic soil, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Towns and cities dotted the landscape, two of the most prominent being Mecca and Medina. Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.^[33] In the desert, communal life was crucial for survival. Indigenous tribes relied on each other to endure the challenging conditions and way of life. Tribal affiliation, whether through family ties or alliances, played a significant role in fostering social unity.^[34] Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary. Nomadic groups constantly traveled seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the sedentary settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival also depended on raiding caravans or oases; nomads did not view this as a crime.^[35]

In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits associated with sacred trees,

al-'Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.^[d] Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who "professed a rigid monotheism"^[36] – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although scholars dispute their historicity.^[37][38] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham.^[39][40]

The second half of the sixth century was a period of political disorder in Arabia and communication routes were no longer secure.[41] Religious divisions were an important cause of the crisis.^[42] Judaism became the dominant religion in Yemen while Christianity took root in the Persian Gulf area.^[42] In line with broader trends of the ancient world, the region witnessed a decline in the practice of polytheistic cults and a growing interest in a more spiritual form of religion. While many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points.^[42]

During the early years of Muhammad's life, the Quraysh tribe to which he belonged became a dominant force in western Arabia.^[43] They formed the cult association of hums, which tied members of many tribes in western Arabia to the Kaaba and reinforced the prestige of the Meccan sanctuary.^[44] To counter the effects of anarchy, Quraysh upheld the institution of sacred months during which all violence was forbidden, and it was possible to participate in pilgrimages and fairs without danger.^[44] Thus, although the association of hums was primarily religious, it also had important economic consequences for the city.^[44]

Life

Meccan years

Main article: Muhammad in Mecca

Childhood and early life

See also: Mawlid and Family tree of Muhammad

Timeline of Muhammad's life
Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad
Date	Age	Event
c. 570	–	Death of his father, Abdullah
c. 570	0	Possible date of birth: 12 or 17 Rabi al Awal: in Arabia
c. 577	6	Death of his mother, Amina
c. 583	12–13	His grandfather transfers him to Syria
c. 595	24–25	Meets and marries Khadijah
c. 599	28–29	Birth of Fatima Zahra
610	40	Qur'anic revelation begins in the Jabal an-Nour , the "Mountain of Light" near Mecca. At age 40, Angel Jebreel (Gabriel) was said to appear to Muhammad on the mountain and call him "the Prophet of Allah"
		Begins in secret to gather followers in Mecca
c. 613	43	Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans
c. 614	43–44	Heavy persecution of Muslims begins
c. 615	44–45	Emigration of a group of Muslims to Ethiopia
c. 616	45–46	Banu Hashim clan boycott begins
619	49	Banu Hashim clan boycott ends
		The year of sorrows: Khadija (his wife) and Abu Talib (his uncle) die
c. 620	49–50	Isra and Mi'raj (reported ascension to heaven to meet God)
622	51–52	Hijra, emigration to Medina (called Yathrib)
624	53–54	Battle of Badr
625	54–55	Battle of Uhud
627	56–57	Battle of the Trench (also known as the siege of Medina)
628	57–58	The Meccan tribe of Quraysh and the Muslim community in Medina sign a 10-year truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
630	59–60	Conquest of Mecca
632	61–62	Farewell pilgrimage, event of Ghadir Khumm , and death, in what is now Saudi Arabia
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Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim^[45] was born in Mecca^[46] about the year 570,^[1] and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-Awwal.^[47] He belonged to the Quraysh tribe's Banu Hashim clan, which was one of the more distinguished families in the city, although the clan seems to have experienced a lack of prosperity during his early years.^[12][e] The name Muhammad means "praiseworthy" in Arabic and it appears four times in the Quran.^[48] He was also known as al-Amin (lit. 'faithful') when he was young; however, historians differ as to whether it was given by people as a reflection of his nature^[49] or was simply a given name from his parents, i.e., a masculine form of his mother's name "Amina".^[50] Muhammad acquired the kunya of Abu al-Qasim later in his life after the birth of his son Qasim, who died two years afterwards.^[51]

Islamic tradition states that Muhammad's birth year coincided with Yemeni King Abraha's unsuccessful attempt to conquer Mecca.^[52] Recent studies, however, challenge this notion, as other evidence suggests that the expedition, if it had occurred, would have transpired substantially before Muhammad's birth.^{[1][53][54][55][56][50]} Later Muslim scholars presumably linked Abraha's renowned name to the narrative of Muhammad's birth to elucidate the unclear passage about "the men of elephants" in Quran 105:1–5.^[53][57] The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity deems the tale of Abraha's war elephant expedition as a myth.^[54]

Muhammad's father,

Amina to illness and became an orphan.^[59][60] For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, until the latter's death. He then came under the care of his uncle, Abu Talib, the new leader of the Banu Hashim.^[7]

The historical record of Mecca during Muhammad's early life is limited and fragmentary, making it difficult to distinguish between fact and legend.[61] Several Islamic narratives relate that Muhammad, as a child, went on a trading trip to Syria with his uncle Abu Talib and met a monk named Bahira, who is said to have then foretold his prophethood.^[62] There are multiple versions of the story with details that contradict each other.^[63] All accounts of Bahira and his meeting with Muhammad have been considered fictitious by modern historians^{[64][65][66][67][68]} as well as by some medieval Muslim scholars such as al-Dhahabi.^[68]

Sometime later in his life, Muhammad proposed marriage to his cousin and first love, Fakhita bint Abi Talib. But likely owing to his poverty, his proposal was rejected by her father, Abu Talib, who chose a more illustrious suitor.^[69][70] Life took a favorable turn for Muhammad at the age of 25 when he was asked for marriage by Khadija, a wealthy 40-year-old businesswoman. He accepted her offer and remained monogamous with her until her death.^[71][67]

In 605, the Quraysh decided to roof the Kaaba, which had previously consisted only of walls. A complete rebuild was needed to accommodate the new weight. Amid concerns about upsetting the deities, a man stepped forth with a pickaxe and exclaimed, "O goddess! Fear not! Our intentions are only for the best." With that, he began demolishing it. The anxious Meccans awaited divine retribution overnight, but his unharmed continuation the next day was seen as a sign of heavenly approval. According to a narrative collected by Ibn Ishaq, when it was time to reattach the Black Stone, a dispute arose over which clan should have the privilege. It was determined that the first person to step into the Kaaba's court would arbitrate. Muhammad took on this role, asking for a cloak. He placed the stone on it, guiding clan representatives to jointly elevate it to its position. He then personally secured it within the wall.^[73][74]

Beginnings of the Quran

The experience terrified Muhammad, but he was soon reassured by his wife Khadija and her Christian cousin Waraqa ibn Nawfal.^[81] Khadija instructed Muhammad to let her know if Gabriel returned. When he appeared during their private time, Khadija conducted tests by having Muhammad sit on her left thigh, right thigh, and lap, inquiring Muhammad if the being was still present each time. After Khadija removed her clothes with Muhammad on her lap, he reported that Gabriel left at that very moment. Khadija thus told him to rejoice as she concluded it was not a Satan but an angel visiting him.^[82][83][81]

Muhammad's demeanor during his moments of inspiration frequently led to allegations from his contemporaries that he was under the influence of a jinn, a soothsayer, or a magician, suggesting that his experiences during these events bore resemblance to those associated with such figures widely recognized in ancient Arabia. Nonetheless, these enigmatic seizure events might have served as persuasive evidence for his followers regarding the divine origin of his revelations. Some historians posit that the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition in these instances are likely genuine, as they are improbable to have been concocted by later Muslims.^[84][85]

Shortly after Waraqa's death, the revelations ceased for a period, causing Muhammad great distress and thoughts of suicide.^[79][f] On one occasion, he reportedly climbed a mountain intending to jump off. However, upon reaching the peak, Gabriel appeared to him, affirming his status as the true Messenger of God. This encounter soothed Muhammad, and he returned home. Later, when there was another long break between revelations, he repeated this action, but Gabriel intervened similarly, calming him and causing him to return home.^[86][87]

Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.

Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public.^[9][91] Initially, he had no serious opposition from the inhabitants of Mecca, who were indifferent to his proselytizing activities, but when he started to attack their beliefs, tensions arose.^{[92][93][94][95]} The Quraysh challenged him to perform miracles, such as bringing forth springs of water, yet he declined, reasoning that the regularities of nature already served as sufficient proof of God's majesty. Some satirized his lack of success by wondering why God had not bestowed treasure upon him. Others called on him to visit Paradise and return with tangible parchment scrolls of the Qur'an. But Muhammad asserted that the Quran, in the form he conveyed it, was already an extraordinary proof.^[96][97]

According to

The Quraysh attempted to entice Muhammad to quit preaching by giving him admission to the merchants' inner circle as well as an advantageous marriage, but he refused both of the offers.^[101] A delegation of them then, led by the leader of the Makhzum clan, known by the Muslims as Abu Jahl, went to Muhammad's uncle Abu Talib, head of the Hashim clan and Muhammad's caretaker, giving him an ultimatum:^[102]

"By God, we can no longer endure this vilification of our forefathers, this derision of our traditional values, this abuse of our gods. Either you stop Muhammad yourself, Abu Talib, or you must let us stop him. Since you yourself take the same position as we do, in opposition to what he’s saying, we will rid you of him."^[103][104]

Abu Talib politely dismissed them at first, thinking it was just a heated talk. But as Muhammad grew more vocal, Abu Talib requested Muhammad to not burden him beyond what he could bear, to which Muhammad wept and replied that he would not stop even if they put the sun in his right hand and the moon in his left. When he turned around, Abu Talib called him and said, "Come back nephew, say what you please, for by God I will never give you up on any account."^[105][106]

While a group of Muslims were praying in a ravine, some Quraysh ran into them and blamed them for what they were doing. One of the Muslims, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, then took a camel's jawbone and struck a Quraysh, splitting his head open, in what is reported to be the first bloodshed in Islam.^[107][108]

The initial persecution by the Meccans has been described by modern historians as "mostly mild",

The leaders of the Quraysh sent

In response to the first query, the Qur'an tells a story about a group of men sleeping in a cave (Qur'an 18:9–25), which scholars generally link to the legend of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. For the second query, the Qur'an speaks of Dhu al-Qarnayn, literally "he of the two horns" (Qur'an 18:93–99), a tale that academics widely associate with the Alexander Romance.^[116][117] As for the third query, concerning the nature of the spirit, the Qur'anic revelation asserted that it was beyond human comprehension. Neither the Jews who devised the questions nor the Quraysh who posed them to Muhammad converted to Islam upon receiving the answers.^[115] Nadr and Uqba were later executed on Muhammad's orders after the Battle of Badr, while other captives were held for ransom. As Uqba pleaded, "But who will take care of my children, Muhammad?" Muhammad responded, "Hell!"^{[118][119][120][121]}

Migration to Abyssinia and the incident of Satanic Verses

In 615, fearful that his followers would be seduced from their religion,

While Tabari and Ibn Hisham mentioned only one migration to Abyssinia, there were two sets according to Ibn Sa'd. Of these two, the majority of the first group returned to Mecca before the event of Hijra, while the majority of the second group remained in Abyssinia at the time and went directly to Medina after the event of Hijra. These accounts agree that persecution played a major role in Muhammad sending them there. According to historian W. M. Watt, the episodes were more complex than the traditional accounts suggest; he proposes that there were divisions within the embryonic Muslim community, and that they likely went there to trade in competition with the prominent merchant families of Mecca. In Urwa's letter preserved by Tabari, these emigrants returned after the conversion to Islam of a number of individuals in positions such as Hamza and Umar.^[125]

Along with many others,^[126] Tabari recorded that Muhammad was desperate, hoping for an accommodation with his tribe. So, while he was in the presence of a number of Quraysh, after delivering verses mentioning three of their favorite deities (Quran 53:19–20), Satan put upon his tongue two short verses: "These are the high flying ones / whose intercession is to be hoped for." This led to a general reconciliation between Muhammad and the Meccans, and the Muslims in Abyssinia began to return home. However, the next day, Muhammad retracted these verses at the behest of Gabriel, claiming that they had been cast by Satan to his tongue and God had abrogated them. Instead, verses that revile those goddesses were then revealed.^[127][g][h] The returning Muslims thus had to make arrangements for clan protection before they could re-enter Mecca.^[12][128]

This Satanic verses incident was reported en masse and documented by nearly all of the major biographers of Muhammad in Islam's first two centuries,^[129] which according to them corresponds to Quran 22:52. But since the rise of the hadith movement and systematic theology with its new doctrines, including the isma, which claimed that Muhammad was infallible and thus could not be fooled by Satan, the historical memory of the early community has been reevaluated. As of the 20th century CE, Muslim scholars unanimously rejected this incident.^[126] On the other hand, most European biographers of Muhammad recognize the veracity of this incident of satanic verses on the basis of the criterion of embarrassment. Historian Alfred T. Welch proposes that the period of Muhammad's turning away from strict monotheism was likely far longer but was later encapsulated in a story that made it much shorter and implicated Satan as the culprit.^[125]

In 616, an agreement was established whereby all other Quraysh clans were to enforce a ban on the Banu Hashim, prohibiting trade and marriage with them.^[130] Nevertheless, Banu Hashim members could still move around the town freely. Despite facing increasing verbal abuse, Muhammad continued to navigate the streets and engage in public debates without being physically harmed.^[112] At a later point, a faction within Quraysh, sympathizing with Banu Hashim, initiated efforts to end the sanctions, resulting in a general consensus in 619 to lift the ban.^[131][125]

Attempt to establish himself in Ta'if

In 619, Muhammad faced a period of sorrow. His wife, Khadija, a crucial source of his financial and emotional support, died.^[132] In the same year, his uncle and guardian, Abu Talib, also died.^[133][134] Despite Muhammad's persuasions to Abu Talib to embrace Islam on his deathbed, he clung to his polytheistic beliefs until the end.^[135][134] Muhammad's other uncle, Abu Lahab, who succeeded the Banu Hashim clan leadership, was initially willing to provide Muhammad with protection. However, upon hearing from Muhammad that Abu Talib and Abd al-Muttalib were destined for hell due to not believing in Islam, he withdrew his support.^[135][136]

Muhammad then went to Ta'if to try to establish himself in the city and gain aid and protection against the Meccans,^{[137][125][138]} but he was met with a response: "If you are truly a prophet, what need do you have of our help? If God sent you as his messenger, why doesn’t He protect you? And if Allah wished to send a prophet, couldn’t He have found a better person than you, a weak and fatherless orphan?"^[139] Realizing his efforts were in vain, Muhammad asked the people of Ta'if to keep the matter a secret, fearing that this would embolden the hostility of the Quraysh against him. However, instead of accepting his request, they pelted him with stones, injuring his limbs.^[140]

On Muhammad's return journey to Mecca, news of the events in Ta'if had reached the ears of

It is at this low point in Muhammad's life that the accounts in the

Quranic verse 17:1 recounts Muhammad's night journey from a revered place of prayer to the most distant place of worship. The Kaaba, holy enclosure in Mecca, is widely accepted as the starting point, but there is disagreement among Islamic traditions as to what constitutes "the farthest place of worship". Some modern scholars maintain that the earliest tradition saw this faraway site as a celestial twin of the Kaaba, so that Muhammad's journey took him directly from Mecca through the heavens. A later tradition, however, refers to it as Bayt al-Maqdis, which is generally associated with Jerusalem. Over time, these different traditions merged to present the journey as one that began in Mecca, passed through Jerusalem, and then ascended to heaven.^[145]

The dating of the events also differs from account to account. Ibn Sa'd recorded that Muhammad's Mi'raj took place first, from near the Kaaba to the heavens, on the 27th of Ramadan, 18 months before the Hijrah, while the Isra' from Mecca to Bayt al-Maqdis took place on the 17th night of the Last Rabi’ul before the hijrah. As is well known, these two stories were later combined into one. In Ibn Hisham's account, the Isra' came first and then the Mi'raj, and he put these stories before the deaths of Khadija and Abu Talib. In contrast, al-Tabari included only the story of Muhammad's ascension from the sanctuary in Mecca to "the earthly heaven". Tabari placed this story at the beginning of Muhammad's public ministry, between his account of Khadija becoming "the first to believe in the Messenger of God" and his account of "the first male to believe in the Messenger of God".^[143]

Migration to Medina (Hijrah)

Medina, located over 200 miles (320 km) to the north of Mecca, is a lush oasis.^[136] According to Muslim sources, the city was established by Jews who had survived the revolt against the Romans.^[146] While agriculture was far from being the domain of the Arab tribes, the Jews were outstanding farmers, cultivating the land in the oases.^[146] There were reportedly around 20 Jewish tribes residing in the city, with the three most prominent being Banu Nadir, Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Qurayza.^[147] In time, Arab tribes from southern Arabia migrated to the city and settled down alongside the Jewish community.^[146] The Arab tribes consisted of Banu Aws and Banu Khazraj, both collectively known as Banu Qayla.^[148] Before 620, there had been fighting among the two Arab tribes for almost a hundred years,^[136] with each of them attempting to court the assistance of the Jewish tribes,^[149] which occasionally led to infighting between the latter.^[136]

Having lost all hope of winning converts among his fellow townspeople, Muhammad limited his efforts to non-Meccans who attended fairs or made pilgrimages.^[150] During these endeavors, Muhammad had an encounter with six individuals from the Banu Khazraj. These men had a history of raiding Jews in their locality, who in turn would warn them that a prophet would be sent to punish them. On hearing Muhammad's religious message, they said to each other, "This is the very prophet of whom the Jews warned us. Don't let them get to him before us!" Upon embracing Islam, they returned to Medina and shared their encounter, hoping that by having their people—the Khazraj and the Aws, who had been at odds for so long—accept Islam and adopt Muhammad as their leader, unity could be achieved between them.^[151][152]

The next year, five of the earlier converts revisited Muhammad, bringing with them seven newcomers, three of whom were from the Banu Aws. At Aqaba, near Mecca, they pledged their loyalty to him.^[151] Muhammad then entrusted Mus'ab ibn Umayr to join them on their return to Medina to promote Islam. Come June 622, a significant clandestine meeting was convened, again at Aqaba. In this gathering, seventy-five individuals from Medina attended, including two women, representing all the converts of the oases.^[153] Muhammad asked them to protect him as they would protect their wives and children. They concurred and gave him their oath,^[154] commonly referred to as the second pledge of Aqaba or the pledge of war. Paradise was Muhammad's promise to them in exchange for their loyalty.^[155][156]

Subsequently, Muhammad called upon the Meccan Muslims to relocate to Medina.^[153][157] This event is known as the Hijrah, which basically means "severing of kinship ties."^[158][159] The departures spanned approximately three months. To avoid arriving in Medina by himself with his followers remaining in Mecca, Muhammad chose not to go ahead and instead stayed back to watch over them and persuade those who were reluctant.^[153] Some were held back by their families from leaving, but in the end, there were no Muslims left in Mecca.^[160][161] Muhammad regarded this migration as an expulsion by the Quraysh.^[161]

Islamic tradition recounts that in light of the unfolding events, Abu Jahl proposed a joint assassination of Muhammad by representatives of each clan. Having been informed about this by the angel Gabriel, Muhammad asked his cousin Ali to lie in his bed covered with his green hadrami mantle, assuring that it would safeguard him. After staying hidden for three days, Muhammad subsequently departed with Abu Bakr for Medina,^[162] which at the time was still named Yathrib. The Meccan Muslims who undertook the migration were then called the Muhajirun, while the Medinan Muslims were dubbed the Ansar.^[163]

Medinan years

According to the 19th-century orientalist Julius Wellhausen, when Muhammad arrived in the city in 622, the Jewish tribes were allied with the two Arab tribes as subordinates. However, 21st-century historian Russ Rodgers disagrees. He argues that during Muhammad's second pledge of Aqaba, members of the Arab tribes stated they had to break certain alliances with the Jews due to the nature of the pledge. Rodgers infers it was the Arab tribes who held a subservient or, at most, an equal position to the Jews, since otherwise, the Jews would have been drawn into the covenant.^[164]

Constitution of Medina

Ibn Ishaq, following his narration of the hijrah, maintains that Muhammad penned a text now referred to as the Constitution of Medina and divulges its assumed content without supplying any isnad or corroboration.^[165] The appellation is generally deemed imprecise, as the text neither established a state nor enacted Quranic statutes,^[166] but rather addressed tribal matters.^[167] While scholars from both the West and the Muslim world agree on the text's authenticity, disagreements persist on whether it was a treaty or a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad, the number of documents it comprised, the primary parties, the specific timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts), whether it was drafted before or after Muhammad's removal of the three leading Jewish tribes of Medina, and the proper approach to translating it.^[165][168]

Beginning of armed conflict

In the early stages of his time in Medina, Muhammad was optimistic that the Jewish people would acknowledge him as a Prophet and strove to obtain converts from their community.^[163] However, his efforts were unsuccessful and even faced ridicule, as the Jews perceived inconsistencies between the Quran and their own scriptures. Consequently, the Quran accused the Jews of hiding and modifying parts of their holy texts. The Jewish criticism and refusal presented a danger to his prophetic claims, and, as a result, the views of Muhammad and the Quran towards them worsened.^{[169][170][171]} This then led to the reorientation of the Muslim prayer direction, the qibla, from Jerusalem to the Kaaba in Mecca.^[172][173]

Muhammad's designation of Mecca as the center of Islam, coupled with his need to settle scores with the Meccans after his threats of divine punishment against them never materialized,^[174] as well as the economic hardships he and the Muhajirun faced in Medina,^[175][176] culminated in a new divine directive—to fight the polytheists.^[174] Muhammad thus dispatched his followers to perform raids on the Quraysh's trading caravans.^{[174][177][178]} Certain Meccan followers of his were reluctant to participate, as it would mean attacking their own tribespeople. This vexed Muhammad, resulting in the revelation of Quran verse 2:216, among others, which asserts that fighting is good and has been made obligatory for them.^[174] After several months of failures, Muhammad managed to achieve his first successful raid, at Nakhla, during a month that the pagans forbade themselves from shedding blood.^[179][180] When the bountiful plunder was being brought back to him in Medina,^[174] Muhammad was met with censure from the locals. He contended that his followers had misconstrued his command, and he postponed taking his one-fifth portion of the spoil until a verse was ultimately revealed, legitimizing the attack.^[i]

Two months hence, a grand Quraysh trade caravan, representing the investments of all Meccans, traveled home from Gaza.^[181] Muhammad had tried to ambush it on its departure from Mecca but had failed.^[182][183] When Abu Sufyan, the leader of the caravan, learned in Zarqa that Muhammad was preparing to raid the caravan again, he sent a messenger to Mecca for aid,^[182] and about 950 Meccans set out in response.^[181] As the caravan approached the watering place of Badr, Abu Sufyan reconnoitred the town himself and confirmed his suspicion that Muhammad would launch his attack there. He thus diverted the caravan to the more difficult coastal road to the west, even though it meant depriving them of fresh water.^[184][185] Upon the caravan's safe escape, part of the relief column withdrew, leaving behind 600–700 men.^[186][187] Muhammad, upon discovering the presence of the remaining Meccans through their water carriers, ordered his troops to cover all the wells with sand and stones, on the advice of Hubab ibn al-Mundhir,^[188][189] reserving one for themselves. And thus forcing the Meccans to fight for water.^[190][191]

The battle commenced with individual duels between warriors from both sides, which then escalated into a chaotic melee.^[192] Although not participating in the combat, Muhammad inspired his followers with the promise of paradise if they died fighting. Many of the Quraysh were reluctant to kill their own kin, and just prior to midday, they succumbed to panic and ran away.^[193] Muhammad ordered the search for Abu Jahl. A Muslim found him, beheaded him, and threw the head to Muhammad's feet who jubilantly exclaimed: "The head of the enemy of God. Praise God, for there is no other but He!"^[j] The battle concluded with the Quraysh suffering 49 to 70 losses, while the Muslims had 14 casualties.^[194] The Muslims obtained considerable war spoils and a number of prisoners. Umar desired that all of them be slain, yet Muhammad resolved that ransom must be requested first, and afterwards, they could execute any for whom no one was willing to pay.^[193]

Upon his return to Medina, Muhammad immediately worked to solidify his authority. He instructed the removal of Asma bint Marwan, who had criticized him in poetry.^[195] One of his followers executed her while she slept with her children, the youngest still nursing in her arms. Upon learning of the deed, Muhammad lauded the act as a service to God and his Messenger.^{[196][195][197]} Shortly after, he called upon his followers to end the life of the centenarian poet Abu Afak.^[195] Simultaneously, Muhammad employed poets like Hassan ibn Thabit to circulate his propaganda among the tribes.^[195][198] When inquired if he could shield Muhammad from his foes, Ibn Thabit is reported to have extended his tongue and claimed there was no defense against his verbal prowess.^[195][199]

Conflicts with Jewish tribes

Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad revealed his intention to expel the Jews from the land.^{[200][201][202]} Once the ransom arrangements for the Meccan captives were finalized, he initiated a siege on the Banu Qaynuqa,^[203] regarded as the weakest and wealthiest of Medina's three main Jewish tribes.^[204][205] Muslim sources provide different reasons for the siege, including an altercation involving Hamza and Ali in the Banu Qaynuqa market, and another version by Ibn Ishaq, which tells the story of a Muslim woman being pranked by a Qaynuqa goldsmith.^[205][206] Regardless of the cause, the Banu Qaynuqa sought refuge in their fort, where Muhammad blockaded them, cutting off their access to food supplies. After roughly two weeks, they capitulated without engaging in combat.^[204][205]

At first, Muhammad planned to annihilate the surrendered tribe, but Abdullah ibn Ubayy, a Khazraj chieftain who had embraced Islam, stepped in. Previously, the Qaynuqa had protected him during multiple conflicts. Ibn Ubayy implored Muhammad to show leniency, but Muhammad turned away without responding. Undeterred, Ibn Ubayy grasped Muhammad's cloak, causing his face to darken with anger and demanding his release. Ibn Ubayy refused unless Muhammad agreed to treat them leniently, threatening him, "I am a man who fears that circumstances may change." Muhammad thus spared their lives, stipulating that they must depart Medina within three days and relinquish their property to the Muslims, with Muhammad retaining a fifth.^[k]

Having dealt with the Qaynuqa, Muhammad moved on to another personal matter. His staunch critic, Ka'b ibn Ashraf, a wealthy half-Jewish man from Banu Nadir, had just come back from Mecca after producing poetry that mourned the death of the Quraysh at Badr and aroused them to retaliate.^[207][208] Muhammad asked his followers, "Who is ready to kill Ka'b, who has hurt God and His apostle?"^[209][210] Ibn Maslama offered his services, explaining that the task would require deception. Muhammad did not contest this. He then gathered accomplices, including Ka'b's foster brother, Abu Naila. They pretended to complain about their post-conversion hardships, persuading Ka'b to lend them food. On the night of their meeting with Ka'b, they murdered him when he was caught off-guard.^[l]

Meccan retaliation

In 625, the Quraysh, wearied by Muhammad's continuous attacks on their caravans, decided to take decisive action. Led by Abu Sufyan, they assembled an army to oppose Muhammad.^[203][211] Upon being alerted by his scout about the impending threat, Muhammad convened a war council. Initially, he considered defending from the city center, but later decided to meet the enemy in open battle at Uhud Hill, following the insistence of the younger faction of his followers.^[212] As they prepared to depart, the remaining Jewish allies of Abdullah ibn Ubayy offered their help, which Muhammad declined.^[213] Despite being outnumbered, the Muslims initially held their ground but lost advantage when some archers disobeyed orders.^[203] As rumors of Muhammad's death spread, the Muslims started to flee, but he had only been injured and managed to escape with a group of loyal adherents. Satisfied they had restored their honor, the Meccans returned to Mecca.^[203][214]

Sometime later, Muhammad found himself needing to pay blood money to

Upon receiving a report that the Banu Mustaliq were planning an attack on Medina, Muhammad's troops executed a surprise attack on them at their watering place, causing them to flee rapidly. In the confrontation, the Muslims lost one man, while the enemy suffered ten casualties.^[224] As part of their triumph, the Muslims seized 2,000 camels, 500 sheep and goats, and 200 women from the tribe.^[225] The Muslim soldiers desired the captive women, but they also sought ransom money. They asked Muhammad about using coitus interruptus to prevent pregnancy, to which Muhammad replied, "You are not under any obligation to forbear from that..."^[226][227] Later, envoys arrived in Medina to negotiate the ransom for the women and children. Despite having the choice, all of them chose to return to their country instead of staying.^[226][227]

Assassination of Khaybar leaders and the Banu Uraynah affair

Muhammad's northward raids of Medina had by now caused significant opposition. Many, including Abu Rafi, one of Khaybar's key chieftains, were part of this resistance.^[228] He was then killed in his room by the Muslims at night.^[229] Sometime later, Khaybar people selected Usayr ibn Razim as their emir.^[230] Muhammad extended an invitation for him to come to Medina for a settlement. He agreed, but during the journey, the Muslims killed him along with his companions by surprise. Muhammad praised the commandos' leader for his work when he came back to Medina.^{[231][232][230]}

Around this particular time, eight men from the Banu Uraynah tribe sought to embrace Islam. They conveyed their discomfort with the city's climate to Muhammad. As a solution, he ordered them to drink the urine and milk of his camels. However, they opted to steal the camels, killing the caretakers in the process. Upon their capture, Muhammad had their eyes gouged out and their limbs cut off. They were then left to die in the desert.^[233][234]

Battle of the Trench

Realizing that their victory at Uhud had failed to substantially weaken Muhammad's position as he continued to orchestrate raids on their trade caravans, the Quraysh finally saw the imperative of capturing Medina, a move they had previously neglected.^[203] This decision, according to Muslim sources, was partly influenced by some leaders of the Banu Nadir, who were distressed over the loss of their lands.^[235][203] However, that account may simply have been Muslim propaganda.^[236] Aware of their limited warfare skills as city merchants, the Quraysh initiated extensive negotiations with various Bedouin tribes, amassing a force believed to number around 10,000 men.^[203] Informed early by his allies in Mecca, Muhammad ordered his followers to fortify Medina with trenches, on the advice of Salman the Persian.^[237] The Jews of Banu Qurayza assisted with this effort by digging the trenches and lending their tools to the Muslims.^{[238][239][240]} The approaching Quraysh and their allies, unfamiliar with trench warfare, were drawn into a protracted siege. Muhammad exploited this situation, using covert negotiations with the Ghatafan tribe to create discord among his enemies. As the weather deteriorated, morale among the Quraysh and their allies waned, leading to their withdrawal.^[203] The siege saw minimal casualties, with five to six on the Muslims' side and three among the besiegers.^[241][242]

Massacre of the Banu Qurayza

On the exact day the Quraysh forces and their allies withdrew, Muhammad, while bathing at his wife's abode, received a visit from the angel Gabriel, who instructed him to attack the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza.^{[241][243][244]} Islamic sources recount that during the preceding Meccan siege, Abu Sufyan, the Quraysh leader, incited the Qurayza to attack the Muslims from their compound, but the Qurayza demanded the Quraysh to provide 70 hostages from among themselves to ascertain their commitment to their plans, as proposed by Muhammad's secret agent Nu'aym ibn Mas'ud. Abu Sufyan refused their requirement.^[245] Nevertheless, later accounts claim that 11 Jewish individuals from the Qurayza were indeed agitated and acted against Muhammad, but no evidence substantiates such an attack, and the tradition had every reason to dramatize the incident as a justification for the subsequent massacre.^[246][243]

Muhammad besieged the tribe, alleging they had taken sides against him, which they firmly denied.^[247] As the situation turned dire, they proposed to leave their land but asked to be allowed to take movable goods, the load of a camel per person; Muhammad refused. They then offered to leave without taking anything, but Muhammad rejected this as well. He insisted on their unconditional surrender.^[248][249] The Qurayza subsequently requested to confer with one of their Aws allies who had embraced Islam, leading to the arrival of Abu Lubaba. When asked about Muhammad's intentions, he gestured towards his throat, indicating an imminent massacre. He immediately regretted his indiscretion and tied himself to one of the Mosque pillars as a form of penance.^[250][248]

After a 25-day siege, the Banu Qurayza surrendered.^[251] The Muslims of Banu Aws entreated Muhammad for leniency, prompting him to suggest that one of their own should serve as the judge, which they accepted. Muhammad assigned the role to Sa'd ibn Muadh, a man nearing death from an infection in his wounds from the previous Meccan siege.^{[251][250][252]} He pronounced that all the men should be put to death, their possessions to be distributed among Muslims, and their women and children to be taken as captives. Muhammad declared, "You have judged according to the very sentence of God above the seven heavens."^[250][251] Consequently, 600–900 men of Banu Qurayza were executed. The women and children were distributed as slaves, with some being transported to Najd to be sold. The proceeds were then utilized to purchase weapons and horses for the Muslims.^{[253][254][255][256]}

Incidents with the Banu Fazara

After a few months of rest following the annihilation of the Qurayza, Muhammad prepared to conduct numerous operations. The sources no longer frequently report him receiving word of impending attacks against the Muslims in Medina, suggesting that Muhammad, recognizing his newfound strength, felt capable enough to discard any pretenses and directly confront potential rivals.^[257] Several tribes, finding no other defensive option, eventually joined the Muslims, understanding from Muhammad's clear decree that Muslims could only raid non-Muslims, thus the most efficient way to avoid the raids was to join the raiders.^[258]

During this period, Muhammad organized a caravan, presumably stocked with recent spoils, to conduct trade in Syria. Zayd ibn Harithah was tasked with guarding the convoy. However, when they journeyed through the territory of Banu Fazara, whom Zayd had raided in the past, the tribe seized the opportunity for revenge, attacked the caravan, and injured him. Upon his return to Medina, Muhammad decided that a punitive expedition was necessary. Zayd led this operation, successfully capturing Umm Qirfa, the esteemed Fazara matriarch. As punishment, Zayd ordered Qays ibn al-Musahhar to execute her. He did so by tying each of her legs to separate camels, which were then driven in opposite directions, leading to her brutal death.^[259][260]

Treaty of Hudaybiyya

1. A ten-year truce was established between both parties.
2. If a Qurayshite came to Muhammad's side without his guardian's allowance, he was to be returned to the Quraysh; yet, if a Muslim came to the Quraysh, he would not be surrendered to Muhammad.
3. Any tribes interested in forming alliances with Muhammad or the Quraysh were free to do so. These alliances were also protected by the ten-year truce.
4. Muslims were then required to depart back to Medina, however, they were permitted to make the Umrah pilgrimage in the coming year.^[264][263]

Invasion of Khaybar

Roughly ten weeks subsequent to his return from Hudaybiyya, Muhammad expressed his plan to invade Khaybar, a flourishing oasis about 75 miles (121 km) north of Medina. The city was populated by Jews, including those from the Banu Nadir, who had previously been expelled by Muhammad from Medina. With the prospect of rich spoils from the mission, numerous volunteers answered his call.^[265][266] To keep their movements hidden, the Muslim military chose to march during the nighttime. As dawn arrived and the city folks stepped out of their fortifications to harvest their dates, they were taken aback by the sight of the advancing Muslim forces. Muhammad cried out, "Allahu Akbar! Khaybar is destroyed. For when we approach a people's land, a terrible morning awaits the warned ones."^[267] After a strenuous battle lasting more than a month, the Muslims successfully captured the city.^[268] The loss in the confrontation was 15–17 Muslims and 93 Jews.^[269]

The spoils, inclusive of the wives of the slain warriors, were distributed among the Muslims.

Following their defeat by the Muslims, some of the Jews proposed to Muhammad that they stay and serve as tenant farmers, given the Muslims' lack of expertise and labor force for date palm cultivation. They agreed to give half of the annual produce to the Muslims. Muhammad consented to this arrangement with the caveat that he could displace them at any time. While they were allowed to farm, he demanded the surrender of all gold or silver, executing those who secreted away their wealth.[277]^[278] Taking a cue from what transpired in Khaybar, the Jews in Fadak immediately sent an envoy to Muhammad and agreed to the same terms of relinquishing 50% of their annual harvest. However, since no combat occurred, the rank and file had no claim to a portion of the spoils. Consequently, all the loot became Muhammad's exclusive wealth.^[279][280]

At the feast following the battle, the meal served to Muhammad was reportedly poisoned. His companion, Bishr, fell dead after consuming it, while Muhammad himself managed to vomit it out after tasting it.^[279][281] The perpetrator was Zaynab bint al-Harith, a Jewish woman whose father, uncle, and husband had been killed by the Muslims.^[271] When asked why she did it, she replied, "You know what you've done to my people... I said to myself: If he is truly a prophet, he will know about the poison. If he's merely a king, I'll be rid of him."^[279][271] One account suggests Muhammad forgave her, but in other more accepted reports, she was killed thereafter.^[279] Muhammad suffered illness for a period due to the poison he ingested, and he endured sporadic pain from it until his death.^[282][283]

Fulfilled umrah and the Battle of Mu'tah

A year after the treaty of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad took some of his followers to perform the

Upon returning to Medina, Muhammad launched four raids on tribes in the vicinity. Two of these ended in defeat, while the remaining two yielded plunder. Muhammad then directed his army to move northwards, towards the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.^[287] Although outnumbered, the Muslim army advanced to confront their adversaries, with victory or martyrdom as their aim. The two parties clashed at Mu'tah and it ended in defeat for the Muslims. Zayd ibn Haritha, Muhammad's adopted son, died as a commander at the battle.^[288] Khalid ibn Walid, who had now embraced Islam, gathered the surviving Muslims to retreat.^[289]

Final years

Conquest of Mecca

Main articles: Conquest of Mecca and Muhammad after the occupation of Mecca

After amassing a powerful alliance, Muhammad once more set his sights on his hometown, Mecca. He leveraged his covert agent, Budayl ibn Warqa, to fan the flames of discord between Banu Bakr, supported by the Quraysh, and Banu Khuza'ah, his ally.^[290] Taking the ensuing conflict as a casus belli, Muhammad led his forces towards Mecca.^[291] Upon nearing the city, he ordered the creation of individual fires to magnify the perceived size of his army. He sent al-Abbas, his uncle, to warn the Meccan chief Abu Sufyan that if they were to invade the city, it could result in the slaughter of the Quraysh, including himself.^[292] Abu Sufyan then went to meet Muhammad and converted to Islam. He subsequently went back to the city and told the citizens that their lives and property would be safe as long as they did not resist and remained in their homes, went to the Kaaba, or stayed with him.^[293]

Muhammad sent out his forces with a short list of six men and four women to be killed on sight. Among those targeted was his former scribe, Abdullah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Sarh.^[294] While transcribing the Quranic verses from Muhammad's dictation, Abdullah filled a brief pause by Muhammad by vocalizing his own version of the rest of the verse. Absentmindedly, Muhammad instructed him to include it.^[295] He also professed to have intermittently modified the substance of the Quran's dictation, which Muhammad failed to detect. These factors led him to abandon Islam and return to Mecca. Later, during the conquest, Abdullah, in the company of his foster brother Uthman, implored Muhammad for mercy, which was eventually given. However, as they left, Muhammad rebuked his companions, "I was silent for a long time. Why did not one of you kill this dog?" When inquired why he did not signal, Muhammad irritably retorted, "One does not kill by signs." After Muhammad's death, Abdullah became a top official in the Islamic state.^[294][296]

Ibn Khatal al-Adrami, another apostate, was not as fortunate. He authored verses critical of Muhammad and had two girls sing them at a party he held. Amid the conquest, he desperately clung to the Kaaba's curtain. Muhammad, upon hearing this, ordered his execution, nonetheless. One of the songstresses was later found and similarly executed.^[294][296] In sum, only three out of the ten targets were located and eliminated. The remainder were able to secure a form of pardon for their past deeds and were allowed to join the ranks of Islam.^[297] In their advances, the Muslim forces faced only little resistance from one sector of Mecca, which was effortlessly defeated by Khalid ibn al-Walid.^[298] Eventually, Muhammad visited the Kaaba and had it cleared of all idols and images, except, reportedly, the paintings of Abraham, Jesus, and Mary.^[298][296] All of Mecca's residents were then gathered and made to pledge their allegiance to him and convert to Islam.^[298]

Subduing the Hawazin and Thaqif and the expedition to Tabuk

Main articles: Battle of Hunayn and Expedition of Tabuk

Upon learning that Mecca had fallen to the Muslims, the Banu Hawazin gathered their entire tribe, including their families, to fight.^[299] They are estimated to have around 4,000 warriors.^[300][301] Muhammad led 12,000 soldiers to raid them, but they surprised him at Wadi Hunayn.^[302] The Muslims overpowered them and took their women, children and animals.^[303] Muhammad then turned his attention to Taif, a city that was famous for its vineyards and gardens. He ordered them to be destroyed and besieged the city, which was surrounded by walls. After 15–20 days of failing to breach their defenses, he abandoned the attempts.^[304][305]

When he divided the plentiful loot acquired at Hunayn among his soldiers, the rest of the Hawazin converted to Islam^[306] and implored Muhammad to release their children and women, reminding him that he had been nursed by some of those women when he was a baby. He complied but held on to the rest of the plunder. Some of his men opposed giving away their portions, so he compensated them with six camels each from subsequent raids.^[307] Muhammad distributed a big portion of the booty to the new converts from the Quraysh. Abu Sufyan and two of his sons, Muawiyya and Yazid, got 100 camels individually.^[308][309] The Ansar, who had fought bravely in the battle, but received close to nothing, were unhappy with this.^[310][311] One of them remarked, "It is not with such gifts that one seeks God's face." Disturbed by this utterance, Muhammad retorted, "He changed color."^[308]

Roughly 10 months after he captured Mecca, Muhammad took his army to attack the wealthy border provinces of Byzantine Syria.^[312][313] Several motives are proposed, including avenging the defeat at Mu'tah and earning vast booty.^[314][315] Because of the drought and severe heat at that time, some of the Muslims refrained from participating. This led to the revelation of Quran 9:38 which rebuked those slackers.^[316] When Muhammad and his army reached Tabuk, there were no hostile forces present.^[317] However, he was able to force some of the local chiefs to accept his rule and pay jizya. A group under Khalid ibn Walid that he sent for a raid also managed to acquire some booty including 2,000 camels and 800 cattle.^[318]

The Hawazin's acceptance of Islam resulted in Taif losing its last major ally.^[319] After enduring a year of unrelenting thefts and terror attacks from the Muslims following the siege, the people of Taif, known as the Banu Thaqif, finally reached a tipping point and acknowledged that embracing Islam was the most sensible path for them.^{[320][321][322]}

Farewell pilgrimage

Main article: Farewell Pilgrimage

See also: Ghadir Khumm

al-Bīrūnī's The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries, depicting Muhammad prohibiting Nasī' during the Farewell Pilgrimage, 17th-century Ottoman copy of a 14th-century (Ilkhanate

) manuscript (Edinburgh codex)

On February 631, Muhammad received a revelation granting idolaters four months of grace, after which the Muslims would attack, kill, and plunder them wherever they met.[323]^[324]

During the 632 pilgrimage season, Muhammad personally led the ceremonies and gave a sermon. Among the key points highlighted are said to have been the prohibition of usury and vendettas related to past murders from the pre-Islamic era; the brotherhood of all Muslims; and the adoption of twelve lunar months without intercalation.^[325][326] He also reaffirmed that husbands had the right to discipline and strike their wives without excessive force if they were unfaithful or misbehaved. He explained that wives were entrusted to their husbands and, if obedient, deserved to be provided with food and clothing, as they were gifts from God for personal enjoyment.^[327]

Death and tomb

After praying at the burial site in June 632, Muhammad suffered a dreadful headache that made him cry in pain.

Maymunah's hut.^[331] He requested his wives to allow him to stay in Aisha's hut. He could not walk there without leaning on Ali and Fadl ibn Abbas, as his legs were trembling. His wives and his uncle al-Abbas fed him an Abyssinian remedy when he was unconscious.^[332] When he came to, he inquired about it, and they explained they were afraid he had pleurisy. He replied that God would not afflict him with such a vile disease, and ordered all the women to also take the remedy.^[333] According to various sources, including Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad said that he felt his aorta being severed because of the food he ate at Khaybar.^[334][283]

On 8 June 632, Muhammad died. In his last moments, he reportedly uttered:

O God, forgive me and have mercy on me; and let me join the highest companions.[335]^[336][337]

— Muhammad

Historian Alfred T. Welch speculates that Muhammad's death was caused by Medinan fever, which was aggravated by physical and mental fatigue.^[338]

Muhammad was buried where he died in Aisha's house.

Sahabah), the first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, and an empty one that Muslims believe awaits Jesus.^{[340][343][344]}

When

Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornamentation.^[345] Adherents to Wahhabism, Saud's followers, destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration,^[345] and the one of Muhammad is reported to have narrowly escaped.^[346] Similar events took place in 1925, when the Saudi militias retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.^{[347][348][349]} In the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves.^[346] Although the practice is frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a ziyarat—a ritual visit—to the tomb.^[350][351]

Al-Masjid an-Nabawi ("the Prophet's mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, with the Green Dome

built over Muhammad's tomb in the center

After Muhammad

Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Rashidun, and Early Muslim conquests

With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be.

Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".^[m]

The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the

Byzantine Egypt,^[352] large parts of Persia, and established the Rashidun Caliphate

.

Household

Further information:

Muhammad's wives and Ahl al-Bayt

Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina

).

Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts, Rayhana bint Zayd and Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wife or concubine^[n][353]).

At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy

Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years old.^[354] The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.^[355] Muhammad did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.^[356][357] After Khadijah's death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry Sawdah bint Zam'ah, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Umm Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both.^[358] According to classical sources, Muhammad married Aisha when she was 6–7 years old; the marriage was consummated later, when she was 9 years old and he was 53 years old.^[o]

Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.[359]^[360][361]

Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (

Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad, who both died in childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.^[362] Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter.^[363] Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, who died at two years old.^[362]

Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him.[353] Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favorite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.^[358]

Ukaz.^[364] Zayd then became the couple's adopted son, but was later disowned when Muhammad was about to marry Zayd's ex-wife, Zaynab bint Jahsh.^[365] According to a BBC summary, "the Prophet Muhammad did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem".^[366]

Legacy

Islamic tradition

Main article: Muhammad in Islam

Following the attestation to the

prayer itself. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.^[367]

ligature at Unicode code point U+FDFA^[368]

ﷺ‎

In Islamic belief, Muhammad is regarded as the last prophet sent by God.

Various sources present a probable description of Muhammad in the prime of his life. He was slightly above average in height, with a sturdy frame and wide chest. His neck was long, bearing a large head with a broad forehead. His eyes were described as dark and intense, accentuated by long, dark eyelashes. His hair, black and not entirely curly, hung over his ears. His long, dense beard stood out against his neatly trimmed mustache. His nose was long and aquiline, ending in a fine point. His teeth were well-spaced. His face was described as intelligent, and his clear skin had a line of hair from his neck to his navel. Despite a slight stoop, his stride was brisk and purposeful.^[378] Muhammad's lip and cheek were ripped by a slingstone during the battle of Uhud.^[379][380] The wound was later cauterized, leaving a scar on his face.^[381]

However, since the hadith prohibits the creation of images of sentient living beings, Islamic religious art mainly focuses on the word.^[382][383] Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and instead decorate mosques with calligraphy, Quranic inscriptions, or geometrical designs.^[382][384] Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%).^[385] While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past,^[386] Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare.^[382] They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.^[384][387]

The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century

According to

European appreciation

The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century.

References

Notes