Moksha
| Translations of Moksha | |
|---|---|
| English | Emancipation, liberation, release |
| Sanskrit | मोक्ष (IAST: mokṣa) |
| Assamese | মোক্ষ (mokkho) |
| Bengali | মোক্ষ (mokkho) |
| Hindi | मोक्ष (moksh) |
| Javanese | ꦩꦺꦴꦏ꧀ꦱ (moksa) |
| Kannada | ಮೋಕ್ಷ (mōkṣa) |
| Malayalam | മോക്ഷം (mōkṣaṁ) |
| Marathi | मोक्ष (moksh) |
| Nepali | मोक्ष (moksh) |
| Odia | ମୋକ୍ଷ (mokṣa) |
| Punjabi | ਮੋਖ (mokh) |
| Tamil | வீடுபேறு (vīdupēru) |
| Telugu | మోక్షము (mokshamu) |
| Gujarati | મોક્ષ (mōkṣa) |
| Glossary of Hinduism terms | |
| Translations of Moksha | |
|---|---|
Rōmaji: gedatsu) | |
| Korean | 해탈 (RR: haetal) |
| Sinhala | මෝක්ෂ (moksha) |
| Thai | โมกษะ (RTGS: moksa) |
| Vietnamese | giải thoát |
| Glossary of Buddhism | |
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| Hinduism |
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Moksha (
In Hindu traditions, moksha is a central concept[5] and the utmost aim of human life; the other three aims are dharma (virtuous, proper, moral life), artha (material prosperity, income security, means of life), and kama (pleasure, sensuality, emotional fulfillment).[6] Together, these four concepts are called Puruṣārtha in Hinduism.[7]
In some schools of Indian religions, moksha is considered equivalent to and used interchangeably with other terms such as vimoksha, vimukti, kaivalya, apavarga, mukti, nihsreyasa and nirvana.[8] However, terms such as moksha and nirvana differ and mean different states between various schools of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.[9] The term nirvana is more common in Buddhism,[10] while moksha is more prevalent in Hinduism.[11]
Etymology
Moksha is derived from the Sanskrit root word, muc, which means to free, let go, release, liberate.[12]
Definition and meanings
The definition and meaning of moksha varies between various schools of Indian religions.[13] Moksha means freedom, liberation, but from what and how is where the schools differ.[14] Moksha is also a concept that means liberation from rebirth or saṃsāra.[3] This liberation can be attained while one is on earth (jivanmukti), or eschatologically (karmamukti,[3] videhamukti). Some Indian traditions have emphasized liberation on concrete, ethical action within the world. This liberation is an epistemological transformation that permits one to see the truth and reality behind the fog of ignorance.[15]
Moksha has been defined not merely as absence of suffering and release from bondage to saṃsāra. Various schools of Hinduism also explain the concept as presence of the state of paripurna-brahmanubhava (the experience of oneness with
Beyond caste, creed, family or lineage,
That which is without name and form, beyond merit and demerit,
That which is beyond space, time and sense-objects,
You are that, God himself; Meditate this within yourself. ||Verse 254||— Vivekachudamani, 8th Century CE[17]
Eschatological sense
Moksha is a concept associated with saṃsāra (birth-rebirth cycle). Samsara originated with religious movements in the first millennium BCE.[15] These movements such as Buddhism, Jainism and new schools within Hinduism, saw human life as bondage to a repeated process of rebirth. This bondage to repeated rebirth and life, each life subject to injury, disease and aging, was seen as a cycle of suffering. By release from this cycle, the suffering involved in this cycle also ended. This release was called moksha, nirvana, kaivalya, mukti and other terms in various Indian religious traditions.[18] A desire for the release from pain and suffering seems to lie at the root of striving for moksha, and it is commonly believed that moksha is an otherwordly reality, only achievable at the end of life, not during.[19] However there is also a notion that moksha can be achieved during life in the form of a state of liberation, known as jivan-mukti, although this is still reliant on personal and spiritual endeavours attributed to attaining moksha.[19]
Eschatological ideas evolved in Hinduism.[20] In earliest Vedic literature, heaven and hell sufficed soteriological curiosities. Over time, the ancient scholars observed that people vary in the quality of virtuous or sinful life they lead, and began questioning how differences in each person's puṇya (merit, good deeds) or pāp (demerit, sin) as human beings affected their afterlife.[21] This question led to the conception of an afterlife where the person stayed in heaven or hell, in proportion to their merit or demerit, then returned to earth and were reborn, the cycle continuing indefinitely. The rebirth idea ultimately flowered into the ideas of saṃsāra, or transmigration – where one's balance sheet of karma determined one's rebirth. Along with this idea of saṃsāra, the ancient scholars developed the concept of moksha, as a state that released a person from the saṃsāra cycle. Moksha release in eschatological sense in these ancient literature of Hinduism, suggests van Buitenen,[22] comes from self-knowledge and consciousness of oneness of supreme soul.
Epistemological and psychological senses
Scholars provide various explanations of the meaning of moksha in epistemological and psychological senses. For example, Deutsche sees moksha as transcendental consciousness, the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self".[23]
Moksha in Hinduism, suggests Klaus Klostermaier,[24] implies a setting-free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the full sense; the concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been blocked and shut out. Moksha is more than liberation from a life-rebirth cycle of suffering (samsara); the Vedantic school separates this into two: jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and videhamukti (liberation after death).[25] Moksha in this life includes psychological liberation from adhyasa (fears besetting one's life) and avidya (ignorance or anything that is not true knowledge).[24]
As a state of perfection
Many schools of Hinduism according to
The Samkhya school of Hinduism, for example, suggests that one of the paths to moksha is to magnify one's sattvam.[27][28] To magnify one's sattvam, one must develop oneself where one's sattvam becomes one's instinctive nature. Many schools of Hinduism thus understood dharma and moksha as two points of a single journey of life, a journey for which the viaticum was discipline and self-training.[28] Over time, these ideas about moksha were challenged.
Nagarjuna's challenge
Dharma and moksha, suggested Nagarjuna in the 2nd century, cannot be goals on the same journey.[29] He pointed to the differences between the world we live in, and the freedom implied in the concept of moksha. They are so different that dharma and moksha could not be intellectually related. Dharma requires worldly thought, moksha is unworldly understanding, a state of bliss. "How can the worldly thought-process lead to unworldly understanding?", asked Nagarjuna.[29] Karl Potter explains the answer to this challenge as one of context and framework, the emergence of broader general principles of understanding from thought processes that are limited in one framework.[30]
Adi Shankara's challenge
Adi Shankara in the 8th century AD, like Nagarjuna earlier, examined the difference between the world one lives in and moksha, a state of freedom and release one hopes for.[31] Unlike Nagarjuna, Shankara considers the characteristics between the two. The world one lives in requires action as well as thought; our world, he suggests, is impossible without vyavahara (action and plurality). The world is interconnected, one object works on another, input is transformed into output, change is continuous and everywhere. Moksha, suggests Shankara,[24] is a final perfect, blissful state where there can be no change, where there can be no plurality of states. It has to be a state of thought and consciousness that excludes action.[31] He questioned: "How can action-oriented techniques by which we attain the first three goals of man (kama, artha and dharma) be useful to attain the last goal, namely moksha?"
Scholars
Vaishnavism, one of the bhakti schools of Hinduism, is devoted to the worship of God, sings his name, anoints his image or idol, and has many sub-schools. Vaishnavas (followers of Vaishnavism) suggest that dharma and moksha cannot be two different or sequential goals or states of life.[33] Instead, they suggest God should be kept in mind constantly to simultaneously achieve dharma and moksha, so constantly that one comes to feel one cannot live without God's loving presence. This school emphasized love and adoration of God as the path to "moksha" (salvation and release), rather than works and knowledge. Their focus became divine virtues, rather than anthropocentric virtues.
History
The concept of moksha appears much later in ancient Indian literature than the concept of dharma. The proto-concept that first appears in the ancient Sanskrit verses and early Upanishads is mucyate, which means "freed" or "released". In the middle and later Upanishads, such as the Svetasvatara and Maitri, the word moksha appears and begins becoming an important concept.[14][34]
The
The
Starting with the middle Upanishad era, moksha – or equivalent terms such as mukti and kaivalya – is a major theme in many
It was through me the Creator himself gained liberating knowledge,
I am being, consciousness, bliss, eternal freedom: unsullied, unlimited, unending.
My perfect consciousness shines your world, like a beautiful face in a soiled mirror,
Seeing that reflection I wish myself you, an individual soul, as if I could be finite!
A finite soul, an infinite Goddess – these are false concepts,
in the minds of those unacquainted with truth,
No space, my loving devotee, exists between your self and my self,
Know this and you are free. This is the secret wisdom.— Sarasvati Rahasya Upanishad, Translated by Linda Johnsen[47]
Evolution of the concept
The concept of moksha, according to
The acceptance of the concept of moksha in some schools of
It is unclear when the core ideas of samsara and moksha developed in ancient India. Patrick Olivelle suggests these ideas likely originated with new religious movements in the first millennium BCE.[15] The concepts of mukti and moksha, suggests J. A. B. van Buitenen,[22] seem traceable to yogis in Hinduism, with long hair, who chose to live on the fringes of society, given to self-induced states of intoxication and ecstasy, possibly accepted as medicine-men and "sadhu]]s" by ancient Indian society.[14] Moksha to these early concept-developers, was the abandonment of the established order, not in favor of anarchy, but in favor of self-realization, to achieve release from this world.[49]
In its historical development, the concept of moksha appears in three forms: Vedic, yogic and bhakti.
In the Vedic period, moksha was ritualistic.[22] Mokṣa was claimed to result from properly completed rituals such as those before Agni – the fire deity. The significance of these rituals was to reproduce and recite the cosmic-creation event described in the Vedas; the description of knowledge on different levels – adhilokam, adhibhutam, adhiyajnam, adhyatmam – helped the individual transcend to moksa. Knowledge was the means, the ritual its application.
By the middle to late Upanishadic period, the emphasis shifted to knowledge, and ritual activities were considered irrelevant to the attainment of moksha.[51] Yogic moksha[22][52] replaced Vedic rituals with personal development and meditation, with hierarchical creation of the ultimate knowledge in self as the path to moksha. Yogic moksha principles were accepted in many other schools of Hinduism, albeit with differences. For example, Adi Shankara in his book on moksha suggests:
अर्थस्य निश्चयो दृष्टो विचारेण हितोक्तितः |
न स्नानेन न दानेन प्राणायमशतेन वा || १३ ||
By reflection, reasoning and instructions of teachers, the truth is known,
Not by ablutions, not by making donations, nor by performing hundreds of breath control exercises. || Verse 13 ||—Vivekachudamani, 8th Century AD[53]
Bhakti moksha created the third historical path, where neither rituals nor meditative self-development were the way, rather it was inspired by constant love and contemplation of God, which over time results in a perfect union with God.[22] Some Bhakti schools evolved their ideas where God became the means and the end, transcending moksha; the fruit of bhakti is bhakti itself.[54] In the history of Indian religious traditions, additional ideas and paths to moksha beyond these three, appeared over time.[55]
Synonyms
The words moksha, nirvana (nibbana) and
Kaivalya, a concept akin to moksha, rather than nirvana, is found in some schools of Hinduism such as the Yoga school. Kaivalya is the realization of aloofness with liberating knowledge of one's self and disentanglement from the muddled mind and cognitive apparatus. For example, Patanjali's Yoga Sutra suggests:
After the dissolution of avidya (ignorance),
comes removal of communion with material world,
this is the path to Kaivalyam.— Yoga Sutra (Sadhana Pada), 2:24–25[61]
Nirvana and moksha, in all traditions, represent resting in one's true essence, named Purusha or Atman, or pointed at as Nirvana, but described in a very different way. Some scholars, states Jayatilleke, assert that the Nirvana of Buddhism is same as the Brahman in Hinduism, a view other scholars and he disagree with.[62] Buddhism rejects the idea of Brahman, and the metaphysical ideas about soul (atman) are also rejected by Buddhism, while those ideas are essential to moksha in Hinduism.[63] In Buddhism, nirvana is 'blowing out' or 'extinction'.[64] In Hinduism, moksha is 'identity or oneness with Brahman'.[60] Realization of anatta (anatman) is essential to Buddhist nirvana.[65][66][67] Realization of atman (atta) is essential to Hindu moksha.[66][68][69]
Hinduism
Ancient literature of different schools of Hinduism sometimes use different phrases for moksha. For example, Keval jnana or kaivalya ("state of Absolute"), Apavarga, Nihsreyasa, Paramapada, Brahmabhava, Brahmajnana and Brahmi sthiti. Modern literature additionally uses the Buddhist term nirvana interchangeably with moksha of Hinduism.[58][59] There is difference between these ideas, as explained elsewhere in this article, but they are all soteriological concepts of various Indian religious traditions.
The six major orthodox schools of Hinduism have had a historic debate, and disagree over whether moksha can be achieved in this life, or only after this life.[70] Many of the 108 Upanishads discuss amongst other things moksha. These discussions show the differences between the schools of Hinduism, a lack of consensus, with a few attempting to conflate the contrasting perspectives between various schools.[71] For example, freedom and deliverance from birth-rebirth, argues Maitrayana Upanishad, comes neither from the Vedanta school's doctrine (the knowledge of one's own Self as the Supreme Soul) nor from the Samkhya school's doctrine (distinction of the Purusha from what one is not), but from Vedic studies, observance of the Svadharma (personal duties), sticking to Asramas (stages of life).[72]
The six major orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy offer the following views on moksha, each for their own reasons: the Nyaya, Vaisesika and Mimamsa schools of Hinduism consider moksha as possible only after death.[70][73] Samkhya and Yoga schools consider moksha as possible in this life. In the Vedanta school, the Advaita sub-school concludes moksha is possible in this life,[70] while Dvaita, Visistadvaita, Shuddhadvait sub-schools of Vedanta tradition believes that moksha is a continuous event, one assisted by loving devotion to God, that extends from this life to post-mortem. Beyond these six orthodox schools, some heterodox schools of Hindu tradition, such as Carvaka, deny there is a soul or after life moksha.[74]
Sāmkhya, Yoga and mokṣha
Both Sāmkhya and Yoga systems of religious thought are mokshaśāstras, suggests Knut Jacobsen, they are systems of salvific liberation and release.[75] Sāmkhya is a system of interpretation, primarily a theory about the world. Yoga is both a theory and a practice. Yoga gained wide acceptance in ancient India, its ideas and practices became part of many religious schools in Hinduism, including those that were very different from Sāmkhya. The eight limbs of yoga can be interpreted as a way to liberation (moksha).[75][76]
In Sāmkhya literature, liberation is commonly referred to as kaivalya. In this school, kaivalya means the realization of purusa, the principle of consciousness, as independent from mind and body, as different from prakrti. Like many schools of Hinduism, in Sāmkhya and Yoga schools, the emphasis is on the attainment of knowledge, vidyā or jñāna, as necessary for salvific liberation, moksha.[75][77] Yoga's purpose is then seen as a means to remove the avidyā – that is, ignorance or misleading/incorrect knowledge about one self and the universe. It seeks to end ordinary reflexive awareness (cittavrtti nirodhah) with deeper, purer and holistic awareness (asamprājñāta samādhi).[76][78] Yoga, during the pursuit of moksha, encourages practice (abhyāsa) with detachment (vairāgya), which over time leads to deep concentration (samādhi). Detachment means withdrawal from outer world and calming of mind, while practice means the application of effort over time. Such steps are claimed by Yoga school as leading to samādhi, a state of deep awareness, release and bliss called kaivalya.[75][77]
Yoga, or mārga (meaning "way" or "path"), in Hinduism is widely classified into four spiritual approaches.
Vedanta and mokṣha
The three main sub-schools in Vedanta school of Hinduism –
The Vedantic school of Hinduism suggests the first step towards mokṣa begins with mumuksutva, that is desire of liberation.[24] This takes the form of questions about self, what is true, why do things or events make us happy or cause suffering, and so on. This longing for liberating knowledge is assisted by, claims Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta,[83] a guru (teacher), study of historical knowledge and viveka (critical thinking). This is because a guru can help one develop knowledge of maya (the illusionary nature of the world), a critical step on the path to moksha.[84] Shankara cautions that the guru and historic knowledge may be distorted, so traditions and historical assumptions must be questioned by the individual seeking moksha. Those who are on their path to moksha (samnyasin), suggests Klaus Klostermaier, are quintessentially free individuals, without craving for anything in the worldly life, thus are neither dominated by, nor dominating anyone else.[24]
The
The
The
Mokṣha in this life
Among the Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta schools of Hinduism, liberation and freedom reached within one's life is referred to as jivanmukti, and the individual who has experienced this state is called jivanmukta (self-realized person).[96] Dozens of Upanishads, including those from middle Upanishadic period, mention or describe the state of liberation, jivanmukti.[97][98] Some contrast jivanmukti with videhamukti (moksha from samsara after death).[99] Jivanmukti is a state that transforms the nature, attributes and behaviors of an individual, claim these ancient texts of Hindu philosophy. For example, according to Naradaparivrajaka Upanishad, the liberated individual shows attributes such as:[100]
- He is not bothered by disrespect and endures cruel words, treats others with respect regardless of how others treat him;
- When confronted by an angry person he does not return anger, instead replies with soft and kind words;
- Even if tortured, he speaks and trusts the truth;
- He does not crave for blessings or expect praise from others;
- He never injures or harms any life or being (ahimsa), he is intent in the welfare of all beings;[101]
- He is as comfortable being alone as in the presence of others;
- He is as comfortable with a bowl, at the foot of a tree in tattered robe without help, as when he is in a mithuna (union of mendicants), grama (village) and nagara (city);
- He doesn't care about or wear ṣikha (tuft of hair on the back of head for religious reasons), nor the holy thread across his body. To him, knowledge is sikha, knowledge is the holy thread, knowledge alone is supreme. Outer appearances and rituals do not matter to him, only knowledge matters;
- For him there is no invocation nor dismissal of deities, no mantra nor non-mantra, no prostrations nor worship of gods, goddess or ancestors, nothing other than knowledge of Self;
- He is humble, high-spirited, of clear and steady mind, straightforward, compassionate, patient, indifferent, courageous, speaks firmly and with sweet words.
When a Jivanmukta dies he achieves Paramukti and becomes a Paramukta. Jivanmukta experience liberation while alive and also after death i.e., after becoming paramukta, while Videhmukta experiences liberation only after death.
Mokṣa in Balinese Hinduism
Balinese Hinduism incorporates moksha as one of five tattvas. The other four are: brahman (the one supreme god head, not to be confused with Brahmin), atma (soul or spirit), karma (actions and reciprocity, causality), samsara (principle of rebirth, reincarnation). Moksha, in Balinese Hindu belief, is the possibility of unity with the divine; it is sometimes referred to as nirwana.[102][103]
Buddhism
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In Buddhism the term "moksha" is uncommon, but an equivalent term is vimutti, "release". In the suttas two forms of release are mentioned, namely ceto-vimutti, "deliverance of mind," and panna-vimutti, "deliverance through wisdom" (insight). Ceto-vimutti is related to the practice of dhyana, while panna-vimutti is related to the development of insight. According to Gombrich, the distinction may be a later development, which resulted in a change of doctrine, regarding the practice of dhyana to be insufficient for final liberation.[104]
With release comes Nirvana (Pali: Nibbana), "blowing out", "quenching", or "becoming extinguished" of the fires of the passions and of self-view.
Nirvana ends the cycle of
Jainism
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In Jainism, moksha and nirvana are one and the same.[58][121] Jaina texts sometimes use the term Kevalya, and call the liberated soul as Kevalin.[122] As with all Indian religions, moksha is the ultimate spiritual goal in Jainism. It defines moksha as the spiritual release from all karma.[122]
Jainism is a
Jaina traditions believe that there exist Abhavya (incapable), or a class of souls that can never attain moksha (liberation).
According to Jainism, purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels:[130][131][132] Samyak darśana (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of the truth of soul (jīva);[133] Samyak jnana (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the tattvas;[134] and Samyak charitra (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows.[134] Jain texts often add samyak tap (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation (moksha).[135] The four jewels are called moksha marg.[131] According to Jain texts, the liberated pure soul (Siddha) goes up to the summit of universe (Siddhashila) and dwells there in eternal bliss.[136]
Sikhism
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The Sikh concept of mukti (Gurmukhi: ਮੁਕਤੀ) is similar to other Indian religions, and refers to spiritual liberation.[137] It is described in Sikhism as the state that breaks the cycle of rebirths.[137] Mukti is obtained according to Sikhism, states Singha, through "God's grace".[138] According to the Guru Granth Sahib, the devotion to God is viewed as more important than the desire for Mukti.[138]
I desire neither worldly power nor liberation. I desire nothing but seeing the Lord.
I desire neither Brahma, Shiva, the Siddhas, the silent sages and Indra – I seek only the Blessed Vision of my Lord Master's vision.
I have come, helpless, to Your Door, O Lord Master; I am exhausted – I seek the Sanctuary of the saints.
Says Nanak, I have met my Enticing Lord God; my mind is cooled and soothed – it blossoms forth in joy.
Sikhism recommends Naam Simran as the way to mukti, which is meditating and repeating the Naam (Name of God).[137][138]
See also
References
 | This article has an unclear citation style. (December 2023) |
Notes
- ^ The description comprises the three Sanskrit words sat-chit-ananda:
- sat सत् (present participle); [Sanskrit root as, "to be"]:[citation needed] "Truth", "Absolute Being",[87] Sat describes an essence that is pure and timeless, that never changes.[87]
- ānanda आनन्द (noun): "bliss",[87] "true bliss",[citation needed] "happiness",[90] "joy",[90] "delight",[90] "pleasure"[90]
- ^ Ending rebirth:
* Graham Harvey: "The Third Noble Truth is nirvana. The Buddha tells us that an end to suffering is possible, and it is nirvana. Nirvana is a "blowing out," just as a candle flame is wxtinguished in the wind, from our lives in samsara. It connotes an end to rebirth"[109]
* Spiro: "The Buddhist message then, as I have said, is not simply a psychological message, i.e. that desire is the cause of suffering because unsatisfied desire produces frustration. It does contain such a message to be sure; but more importantly it is an eschatological message. Desire is the cause of suffering because desire is the cause of rebirth; and the extinction of desire leads to deliverance from suffering because it signals release from the Wheel of Rebirth."[110]
* John J. Makransky: "The third noble truth, cessation (nirodha) or nirvana, represented the ultimate aim of Buddhist practice in the Abhidharma traditions: the state free from the conditions that created samsara. Nirvana was the ultimate and final state attained when the supramundane yogic path had been completed. It represented salvation from samsara precisely because it was understood to comprise a state of complete freedom from the chain of samsaric causes and conditions, i.e., precisely because it was unconditioned (asamskrta)."[111]
* Walpola Rahula: "Let us consider a few definitions and descriptions of Nirvana as found in the original Pali texts [...] 'It is the complete cessation of that very thirst (tanha), giving it up, renouncing it, emancipation from it, detachment from it.' [...] 'The abandoning and destruction of craving for these Five Aggregates of Attachment: that is the cessation of dukkha. [...] 'The Cessation of Continuity and becoming (Bhavanirodha) is Nibbana.'"[112]
Citations
- ^ "The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, vimoksha". Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
- ISBN 978-0192139658, p. 650
- ^ a b c Sharma 2000, p. 113.
- ^ See:
- E. Deutsch, The self in Advaita Vedanta, in Roy Perrett (Editor), Indian philosophy: metaphysics, Volume 3, ISBN 0-8153-3608-X, Taylor and Francis, pp 343–360;
- T. Chatterjee (2003), Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy, ISBN 978-0739106921, pp 89–102; Quote – "Moksa means freedom"; "Moksa is founded on atmajnana, which is the knowledge of the self.";
- Jorge Ferrer, Transpersonal knowledge, in Transpersonal Knowing: Exploring the Horizon of Consciousness (editors: Hart et al.), ISBN 978-0791446157, State University of New York Press, Chapter 10
- E. Deutsch, The self in Advaita Vedanta, in Roy Perrett (Editor), Indian philosophy: metaphysics, Volume 3,
- ^ John Tomer (2002), Human well-being: a new approach based on overall and ordinary functionings, Review of Social Economy, 60(1), pp 23–45; Quote – "The ultimate aim of Hindus is self-liberation or self-realization (moksha)."
- ^ See:
- A. Sharma (1982), The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology, Michigan State University, ISBN 9789993624318, pp 9–12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (Jul., 1984), pp. 140–142;
- A. Sharma (1999), The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism, The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223–256;
- Chris Bartley (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, Editor: Oliver Learman, ISBN 0-415-17281-0, Routledge, Article on Purushartha, pp 443;
- The Hindu Kama Shastra Society (1925), The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8
- A. Sharma (1982), The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology, Michigan State University,
- ^ See:
- Gavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in ISBN 978-1896209302, pp 11–21;
- Karl H. Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807792, pp. 1–29
- Gavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in
- ^ The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism: "Vimoksha [解脱]" (Skt.; Jpn. gedatsu). Emancipation, release, or liberation. The Sanskrit words vimukti, mukti, and moksha also have the same meaning. Vimoksha means release from the bonds of earthly desires, delusion, suffering, and transmigration. While Buddhism sets forth various kinds and stages of emancipation, or enlightenment, the supreme emancipation is nirvana, a state of perfect quietude, freedom, and deliverance. See The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, vimoksha Archived 22 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b See:
- Loy, David (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, 23 (1), pp 65–74;
- T. Chatterjea (2003), Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy, ISBN 978-0739106921, pp 89; Quote – "In different philosophical systems moksa appears in different names, such as apavarga, nihsreyasa, nirvana, kaivalya, mukti, etc. These concepts differ from one another in detail."
- ISBN 978-0521859424, Cambridge University Press
- ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0, pp 74–83
- ^ "Moksha | Derived from the Sanskrit word muc ("to free")". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
- ISBN 978-8120813304, pp 50–52
- ^ a b c d e f g h Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksha", Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 41–48
- ^ a b c Patrick Olivelle (2012), Encyclopædia Britannica, "Moksha (Indian religions)"
- ^ see:
- S. R. Bhatt (1976), The Concept of Moksha—An Analysis, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 36, No. 4 (Jun., 1976), pp. 564–570;
- S.M.S. Chari (1994), Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline, ISBN 978-8120810983, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, pp 122–123
- David White (1960), Moksa as value and experience, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 9, No. 3/4 (Oct., 1959 – Jan., 1960), pp. 145–161
- ^ Many verses from Vivekachudamani expound on “Tat tvam asi” phrase such as the verse above. For other verses, and translation, see:
- John Richards (Translator), Vivekachudamani, ISBN 978-0979726743(2011 Edition);
- Madhavananda’s translation of Vivekachudamani published in 1921, Himalayan Series 43;
- John Richards (Translator), Vivekachudamani,
- ^ R.C. Mishra, Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, Issue 1, pp 23, 27
- ^ a b Mishra, R.C (2013). Moksha and the Hindu World View. New Delhi, India: SAGE Publications. pp. 21–42.
- ISBN 0-89581-924-4, Asian Humanities Press, Chapter 2
- ^ See:
- Simon Brodbeck (2011), Sanskrit Epics: The Ramayana, Mahabharata and Harivamsa, in Jessica Frazier (Editor) – The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0, pp 83–100
- J. A. B. Van Buitenen, Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 33–40
- Simon Brodbeck (2011), Sanskrit Epics: The Ramayana, Mahabharata and Harivamsa, in Jessica Frazier (Editor) – The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies,
- ^ a b c d e J. A. B. Van Buitenen, Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 33–40
- ISBN 0-8153-3608-X, Taylor and Francis, pp 343–360
- ^ a b c d e Klaus Klostermaier, Mokṣa and Critical Theory, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Jan., 1985), pp. 61–71
- ^ see:
- M. von Brück (1986), Imitation or Identification?, Indian Theological Studies, Vol. 23, Issue 2, pp 95–105
- Klaus Klostermaier, Mokṣa and Critical Theory, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Jan., 1985), pp. 61–71
- ^ see:
- Karl Potter, Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 8, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1958), pp. 49–63
- Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 41–48
- ^ One of three qualities or habits of an individual; sattvam represents spiritual purity; sattvic people, claims Samkhya school, are those who see world's welfare as a spiritual principle. See cited Ingalls reference.
- ^ a b Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 45–46
- ^ a b Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 46
- ^ Karl Potter, Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 8, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1958), pp. 49–63
- ^ a b c Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 47
- ^ see:
- Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp 41–48
- R Sinari (1982), The concept of human estrangement in plotinism and Shankara Vedanta, in "Neoplatonism and Indian thought", Ed: R.B. Harris, Albany, NY, pp 243–255
- R.K. Tripathi (1982), Advaita Vedanta and Neoplatonism, in "Neoplatonism and Indian thought", Ed: R.B. Harris, Albany, NY, pp 237; also see pp 294–297 by Albert Wolters
- ^ a b Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksha", Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 48
- ^ see:
- Klaus Klostermaier (1985), Mokṣa and Critical Theory, Philosophy East and West, 35 (1), pp 61–71
- Roeser, R.W. (2005), An introduction to Hindu Indiaís contemplative psychological perspectives on motivation, self, and development, in M.L. Maehr & S. Karabenick (Eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Volume 14: Religion and Motivation. Elsevier, pp. 297–345
- ^ Sometimes called Katha Upanishad – for example, by Max Muller, Nakhilananda
- ISBN 978-0842616454, pp 269–290
- ISBN 978-0198610250, See entry for Atman (self).
- ISBN 978-0195340136, page 63; Quote: "Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of Atman (soul) and Brahman, Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu."
- ISBN 978-0842616454, pp 283–289
- ISBN 978-0486427171, pp 63–84
- ISBN 978-0842616454, pp 301–326
- ISBN 978-0842616454, pp 316, 319–325
- ISBN 978-0842616454, pp 305–306, 322–325
- ^ a b see:
- John Bowker (1998), Picturing God, Series Editor: Jean Holm, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1855671010, pp 99–101;
- Richard Leviton (2011), Hierophantic Landscapes, ISBN 978-1462054145, pp 543
- John Bowker (1998), Picturing God, Series Editor: Jean Holm, Bloomsbury Academic,
- ^ सार Sanskrit English Dictionary, Germany
- ^ स्व Sanskrit English Dictionary, Germany
- ISBN 978-0936663289, pp 51–52; for Sanskrit original see: सरस्वतीरहस्योपनिषत्sarasvatIrahasya
- ^ see:
- M. Hiriyanna (1952), The Quest After Perfection, Kavyalaya Publishers, pp 23–33
- John Taber, "The significance of Kumarila's Philosophy", in Roy Perrett (Ed) – Theory of Value, Vol 5, ISBN 978-0815336129pp. 113–161
- Okita, K. (2008), "Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta: Interaction and Continuity", The Journal of Hindu Studies, 1(1–2), pp 155–156
- ISBN 0-8153-3612-8, Taylor & Francis, pp 25–32
- ^ see:
- ISBN 978-0691142036, pp 33–34;
- Sarah Strauss (2005), Positioning Yoga, Berg/Oxford International, ISBN 1-85973-739-0, pp 15
- ISBN 978-1-4725-1151-5, Chapter 4
- ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0, pp 74–82
- ^ See:
- John Richards (Translator), Vivekachudamani, ISBN 978-0979726743(2011 Edition);
- Madhavananda’s translation of Vivekachudamani published in 1921, Himalayan Series 43;
- John Richards (Translator), Vivekachudamani,
- ISBN 978-0873959902, State University of New York Press, Chapter 5
- ^ D. Datta (1888), "Moksha, or the Vedántic Release", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, New Series, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Oct., 1888), pp. 513–539
- ^ For example, the Adhyatma Upanishad uses all three words nirvana, kaivalya and moksha (Verses 12, 16, 69, 70); K.N. Aiyar (Transl. 1914), Thirty Minor Upanishads, University of Toronto Robart Library Archives, Canada, pp 55–60
- ISBN 978-8176257091, Chapter 18, pp 187
- ^ ISBN 81-208-1691-9.: "Moksa and Nirvana are synonymous in Jainism". p.168
- ^ a b c David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, 23(1), pp 65–74
- ^ ISBN 978-1-60486-093-1.
- ISBN 978-8176257091, Chapter 18
- ISBN 978-955-24-0335-4.
- ISBN 978-955-24-0335-4.
- ISBN 978-955-24-0335-4.
- ISBN 978-0-7190-0971-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7007-1280-9.
- ISBN 978-1-119-14466-3.
- ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.
- ISBN 978-1-136-72129-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-0195644418, pp 117
- ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4
- ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4, pp 342
- ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4, Chapter 26
- ^ see:
- Miller, A. T. (2013), A review of "An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom", Religion, 43(1), 119–123.
- Snell, M. M. (1894). Hinduism's Points of Contact with Christianity. IV. Salvation. The Biblical World, 4(2), pp 98–113
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4725-1151-5, pp 74–82
- ^ a b Jeffrey Gold, Plato in the Light of Yoga, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan., 1996), pp. 20–27
- ISBN 81-208-0262-4, pp 45–60
- ^ See:
- John Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, see articles on bhaktimārga, jnanamārga, karmamārga;
- Bhagwad Gita (The Celestial Song), Chapters 2:56–57, 12, 13:1–28
- Feuerstein, Georg (2003), The deeper dimension of yoga: Theory and practice, Shambhala, ISBN 1-57062-935-8;
- D. Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Cultural Psychology, in Anthony Marsella (Series Editor), International and Cultural Psychology, Springer New York, ISBN 978-1-4419-8109-7, pp 93–140
- John Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York,
- ^ H. Negendra (2008), Int Journal of Yoga, Jul–Dec, 1(2), pp 43–44
- ^ ISBN 978-0824802714, pp 104–106
- ^ (Sarma 1966, pp. 41–42)
- ^ Shankara, Sarva vedanta siddhantasara 230–239
- ^ Mishra, R.C (2013). Moksha and the Hindu Worldview. New Delhi, India: SAGE Publications. p. 27.
- ^ D. Datta (1888), Moksha, or the Vedántic Release, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, New Series, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Oct., 1888), pp. 516
- ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.
- ^ a b c d Maharishi's Teaching, Meaning of the word "Satcitananda" (Sat Chit Ananda)
- ^ "Sat-Cit-Ananda Eternity Knowledged and Bliss, Kala Material Time, Form". ISKCON Desire Tree | IDT. 8 March 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
- ^ a b c "Sanskrit Dictionary, chit". Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
- ^ a b c d "Sanskrit dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit, ananda". Archived from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
- ^ Sharma, Chandradhar. Indian Philosophy A Critical Survey. pp. 274–275.
- ^ Karl Potter (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Volume 3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp 213
- ^ Betty, Stafford. "Dvaita, Advaita, And Viśiṣṭadvaita: Contrasting Views Of Mokṣa." Asian Philosophy 20.2 (2010): 215–224. Academic Search Elite. Web. 24 Sept. 2012.
- ISBN 978-8180695957, Chapter 19
- ^ Abha Singh (October 2001), Social Philosophy of Ramanuja: its modern relevance, Indian Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp 491–498
- ^ see:
- Andrew Fort and Patricia Mumme (1996), Living Liberation in Hindu Thought, ISBN 978-0-7914-2706-4;
- Norman E. Thomas (April 1988), Liberation for Life: A Hindu Liberation Philosophy, Missiology, Volume 16, Number 2, pp 149–160
- Andrew Fort and Patricia Mumme (1996), Living Liberation in Hindu Thought,
- ^ See for example Muktika Upanishad, Varaha Upanishad, Adhyatma Upanishad, Sandilya Upanishad, Tejobindu Upanishad, etc.; in K.N. Aiyar (Transl. 1914), Thirty Minor Upanishads, University of Toronto Robart Library Archives, Canada
- ^ Paul Deussen, The philosophy of the Upanishads, Translated by A.S. Geden (1906), T&T Clark, Edinburgh
- ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7
- ^ see:
K.N. Aiyar (Transl. 1914), Thirty Minor Upanishads, University of Toronto Robart Library Archives, Canada, pp 140–147
- S. Nikhilananda (1958), Hinduism : Its meaning for the liberation of the spirit, Harper, ISBN 978-0911206265, pp 53–79;
- Andrew Fort (1998), Jivanmukti in Transformation, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-3904-6
- S. Nikhilananda (1958), Hinduism : Its meaning for the liberation of the spirit, Harper,
- ^ see also Sandilya Upanishad for ahimsa and other virtues; Quote: "तत्र हिंसा नाम मनोवाक्कायकर्मभिः सर्वभूतेषु सर्वदा क्लेशजननम्"; Aiyar translates this as: He practices Ahimsa – no injury or harm to any living being at any time through actions of his body, his speech or in his mind; K.N. Aiyar (Transl. 1914), Thirty Minor Upanishads, University of Toronto Robart Library Archives, Canada, pp 173–174
- ^ Balinese Hindus spell words slightly differently from Indian Hindus; tattva in India is spelled tattwa in Bali, nirvana in India is spelled nirwana in Bali, etc.
- ^ Anna Nettheim (2011), Tattwa are the words of the world: Balinese narratives and creative transformation, Ph.D. Thesis, University of New South Wales, Australia
- ^ Gombrich, The Conditioned genesis of Buddhism, chapter four: "How Insight Worsted Concentration"
- ISBN 978-0-521-88198-2.
- ^ Gombrich, "What the Buddha thought"
- ISBN 978-0-521-88198-2., Quote: "This general scheme remained basic to later Hinduism, to Jainism, and to Buddhism. Eternal salvation, to use the Christian term, is not conceived of as world without end; we have already got that, called samsara, the world of rebirth and redeath: that is the problem, not the solution. The ultimate aim is the timeless state of moksha, or as the Buddhists seem to have been the first to call it, nirvana."
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-160671-7.
- ^ Harvey 2016.
- ^ Spiro 1982, p. 42.
- ^ Makransky 1997, p. 27-28.
- ^ Rahula 2007.
- ^ Harvey 2013, pp. 73–76.
- ISBN 978-0-19-532899-8.
- ISBN 978-0-521-57054-1.
- ISBN 978-1-136-78336-4.
- ISBN 978-81-208-1649-7.
- ISBN 978-0-231-15362-1.
- ISBN 978-0-486-17023-7.
- ^ Harvey 2013, pp. 75–76.
- ISBN 0521365058: "Nirvana: A synonym for liberation, release, moksa." p.297
- ^ ISBN 978-0415266055.
- ^ Jaini 1980, pp. 222–223.
- ^ Jaini 1980, p. 226.
- ^ Jaini 1980, p. 225.
- ISBN 978-0-85773-656-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-134-93690-8.
- ISBN 978-0415266055.
- ISBN 978-81-208-1691-6.
- ^ Jain 2011, p. 6.
- ^ a b Cort 2001a, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Fohr 2015, pp. 9–10, 37.
- ^ Jaini 1998, pp. 141–147.
- ^ a b Jaini 1998, pp. 148, 200.
- ^ Cort 2001a, p. 7.
- ^ Jain 1992, p. 282–283.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-58340-469-0, page 17
- ^ ISBN 978-8170102458, pages 53–54
- ^ Guru Granth Sahib P534, 2.3.29
Works cited
ISBNs for the books listed. . (December 2023) |
- Cort, John E. (2001a), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2.
- Fohr, Sherry (2015), Jainism: A Guide for the Perplexed, Bloomsbury Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4742-2756-8.
- Harvey, Graham (2016), Religions in Focus: New Approaches to Tradition and Contemporary Practices, Routledge.
- Harvey, Peter (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press.
- Jain, S. A. (1992) [1960], Reality: English Translation of Srimat Pujyapadacharya's Sarvarthasiddhi (Second ed.), Jwalamalini Trust,
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. - Jain, Vijay K. (2011), Acharya Umasvami's Tattvarthsūtra (1st ed.), ISBN 978-81-903639-2-1,. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain
- Jaini, Padmanabh (1980), Wendy Doniger (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0.
- Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jaina Path of Purification, Delhi: ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0.
- Makransky, John J. (1997), Buddhahood Embodied: Sources of Controversy in India and Tibet, SUNY.
- Rahula, Walpola (2007), What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press.
- Sarma, S N (1966), The Neo-Vaisnavite Movement and the Satra Institution of Assam, Gauhati University, ISBN 978-8173310263.
- Sharma, Arvind (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195644418.
- Spiro, Melford E. (1982), Buddhism and Society: A Great Tradition and Its Burmese Vicissitudes, University of California Press.
Further reading
- Huxley, Aldous (1999), Michael Horowitz; Cynthia Palmer (eds.), Moksha: Aldous Huxley's Classic Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience, Simon and Schuster, ISBN 1594775176.
External links
Quotations related to Moksha at Wikiquote