Mon people

Mon
မန်

Mon girls wearing traditional dress in Mawlamyine
Total population
c. 1.7 million
Regions with significant populations
Myanmar	c. 1.1 million[a][1]
Thailand	200,000[b]
Laos	1,000[b]
Languages
Mon, Burmese, Thai, Lao
Religion
Theravada Buddhism, Mon folk religion
Related ethnic groups
Other Austroasiatic groups (Monic – Nyah Kur)

The Mon (

The Mon were one of the earliest to reside in Southeast Asia, and were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Mainland Southeast Asia.^[10][11] The civilizations founded by the Mon were some of the earliest in Thailand as well as Myanmar and Laos. The Mon are regarded as a large exporter of Southeast Asian culture.^[12] Historically, many cities in Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos today, including Yangon, Pathum Thani, and Vientiane were founded either by the Mon people or Mon rulers.

Nowadays, the Mon are a major

The Mon have been referred to by different names by different groups throughout history. During the pre-colonial era, the Burmese called them Talaing (တလိုင်း), which was adopted by the British during the colonial era. The term "Peguan" was also used by Europeans when Pegu was the capital of Lower Myanmar.^[16][17]

The use of "Talaing" has been found on inscriptions dating back to the 11th century,

The Mon of Myanmar are divided into three sub-groups based on their ancestral region in Lower Myanmar, including Mon Nya (မန်ည; /mòn ɲaˀ) from Pathein (the Irrawaddy Delta) in the west, Mon Tang (မန်ဒိုင်; /mòn tàŋ/) in Bago in the central region, and Mon Teh (မန်ဒ; /mòn tɛ̀ˀ/) at Mottama in the southeast.^[26]

History

Prehistory

The Mon people, who descended from

The Mon are believed to have been one of the earliest peoples of

After the year 1000 CE, the Dvaravati Mon people faced constant pressure from Tai migrations from the north and Khmer invasions from the east.^{[57]: 75, 76} Many Dvaravati Mons fled to join other Mon civilizations in the present-day Lower Myanmar, while their descendants, the Nyah Kur people, still reside in Northeastern Thailand. Despite the pressure from the Northern Thai people, the Hariphunchai kingdom managed to survive as a Mon outpost in Northern Thailand.

In 1057 CE, King Anawrahta of the Pagan Kingdom conquered the Thaton Kingdom of the Mon people in Lower Burma.^[43] The Mon culture and script had a significant influence on the Bamar, bringing the Mons under Bamar control for the first time. Despite this, the Mon remained a majority in Lower Burma.^{[58][59]: 32, 33}

On one hand, the Hariphunchai Kingdom of the Mon prospered during the reign of King Aditayaraj in the early twelfth century. He is said to have fought wars with Suryavarman II of Angkor between 1113 and 1150 CE^{[43]: 161, 195} and constructed the Hariphunchai stupa

In 1289,

King Dhammazedi, who succeeded Queen Shin Sawbu in 1470, was a just and wise ruler. He is remembered for his generosity, having donated a significant amount of gold to the Shwedagon Pagoda, as well as for building important temples in the vicinity of Pegu, including the Shwegugyi Pagoda.^[71]

16th to 17th centuries

In the early sixteenth century, the Bamar regained their momentum at Taungoo, leading to the fall of Hanthawaddy to King Tabinshwehti in 1539. This was after a devastating attack on Lower Burma, in which the northern army overran the Irrawaddy Delta and captured Pegu. The siege of Pegu lasted four years and involved Portuguese mercenaries fighting on both sides. The History of Kings attributes Tabinshwehti's success, in part, to the decadence of the Mon king, Dhammazedi's heir.^[69]

As a result of the fall of Pegu, large numbers of Mon refugees fled to Ayutthaya, where the Mon aristocracy joined the court and exercised considerable influence. Meanwhile, back in Burma, the fall of Martaban in 1541 was accompanied by massacre and pillage on a large scale, as was the capture of the old Pyu capital of Prome the following year. This marked the first time, since before the Mongol invasions, that most of Lower and Central Burma was under the control of a Bamar monarch. King Tabinshwehti, founder of the new Toungoo dynasty, celebrated by decorating the Shwedagon and other pagodas with huge amounts of plundered gold.^[69]

Although Tabinshwehti's made efforts to win over the Mon people, the Bamar monarch consistently emphasized his claim to Bamar nationality and sovereignty. Nevertheless, Tabinshwehti was relatively more tolerant than later Toungoo kings who outlawed the Mon language and persecuted the Mon people.^[72]

Following Tabinshwehti's coronation in 1546, Ayutthaya launched several raids on Lower Burma, including the successful capture of

Despite Bayinnaung allowing the Mon people to rule over townships and villages and accept them into the military, he did not grant them the right of national self-determination, and therefore the Mon became subservient to the Bamar. Significant Mon uprisings took place during Bayinnaung's reign, including in 1551 and 1564 when the royal palace at Pegu was destroyed.^[73]

Following the death of King Bayinnaung, his successor King Nanda instituted oppressive policies against the Mon people, leading to the Mon chiefs Phaya Kiat and Phaya Ram attempting to assassinate Naresuan of Phitsanulok in 1584. However, they learned that Naresuan was not responsible for the policies and instead joined his campaigns against the Toungoo court. ^[74]

In the 17th century, the Bamar king Anaukpetlun launched a counter-attack against the Mon rebels and captured their stronghold at Syriam. Eventually, the Mon lands were retaken, and the capital was moved to Pegu. An unsuccessful Mon uprising occurred in Martaban in 1661, which led to the pursuit of fleeing Mon refugees into Ayutthaya via the Three Pagodas Pass.^[75]

18th to 19th centuries

In the early eighteenth century, the power of the Bamar declined rapidly. The Mon rebels joined forces with the Gwe Shan to restore their former Hanthawaddy Kingdom, and in 1740, a monk with Taungoo royal lineage was made king of Pegu. Binnya Dala succeeded him in 1747, and with French support, the Mon established an independent kingdom called the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. However, the kingdom fell to Bamar King Alaungpaya in 1757, who invaded and devastated the kingdom, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of Mon civilians, including learned Mon monks, pregnant women, and children. The victorious Bamar soldiers massacred over 3,000 Mon monks in the capital city alone.^{[76][77][78][79]} During the Konbaung dynasty of Burma, the Mon people experienced harsh rule and massacres that led to a significant migration to Siam and Lanna. In addition to facing widespread violence and persecution, the Mon rebelled multiple times, including at Dagon during the reign of Hsinbyushin, resulting in the destruction of the city. In 1814, the Mon rebelled again, but were harshly put down yet again. These uprisings played a major role in the large wave of Mon migration from Burma to Siam.^[80]

After the collapse of Taksin's Thonburi Kingdom, Phraya Chakri founded the Chakri dynasty and ascended the throne in 1782 as Rama I. Rama I was born to Thongdi, a leading Mon nobleman serving the royal court in Ayutthaya in 1737.^[83] Rama I's queen consort Amarindra was born to a wealthy Mon family who migrated to Siam in the earlier times. Rama I founded Bangkok City and moved the capital from Thonburi to Bangkok. When a huge wave of Mon migrations from Burma (now Myanmar) to Siam (now Thailand) happened in 1814, his grandson, the Prince Mongkut (later Rama IV) proceeded to welcome the Mon himself at the Siam-Burma border.^[84]

The Mon in Thailand settled mainly in certain areas of

Burma was conquered by the British in a series of wars. After the Second Anglo-Burmese War in 1852, the Mon territories in Burma were completely under the control of the British. The British aided the Mons to free themselves from the rule of the Bamar monarchy. Under Bamar rule, the Mon people had been massacred after they lost their kingdom and many sought asylum in the Thai Kingdom. The British conquest of Burma allowed the Mon people to survive in Southern Burma.

In 1947,

Nowadays, the Mon are a major ethnic group in Myanmar and a minor ethnic group in Thailand.^[6] The Mons from Myanmar are called Burmese Mon or Myanmar Mon. The Mons from Thailand are referred as Thai Raman or Thai Mon.^[13][87] A recent study shows that there is a close genetic relationship between central Thai and Mon people in Thailand, who migrated from southern Myanmar.^[88]

Due to the post-independence

The

Many languages in the region have been influenced by the Mon language.

The language has an estimated 800,000 Thousand - 1,000,000 Million speakers[92]

Culture

Symbol

The symbol of the Mon people is the hongsa (Mon: ဟံသာ, [hɔŋsa]), a mythological water bird that is often illustrated as a swan. It is commonly known by its Burmese name, hintha (Burmese: ဟင်္သာ, IPA: [hɪ́ɰ̃θà]) or its Thai name: hong (หงส์). The hongsa is the state symbol of Myanmar's Bago Region and Mon State, two historical Mon strongholds. Also, the hongsa is the city symbol of Thailand's Pak Kret City, a historical Mon settlement area.

• 
  Hongsa (the symbol of Mon people)
• 
  Hongsa in Thai-Mon style
• 
  Mon Traditional Flower-garlands

Music

Mon culture and traditional heritages includes spiritual dances, musical instruments such as the

• 
  A theatrical performance of the Mon dance
• 
  Mon musical instruments
• 
  A

  kyam

Art

Pottery

The Mon people in Thailand have been producing pottery for over 200 years. Their ancestors settled in Koh Kret and Nakhon Sawan, using their pottery making skills to earn a living in both places. The area is known for its high-quality clay and the Mon pottery, including containers and decorative items, is a symbol of their heritage and expertise. The pottery is made of porous earthenware in light orange to red color and features unique designs inspired by nature. Despite technological advancements, the Mon continue to preserve this traditional handicraft.^[94][95][96]

Floral umbrellas

Floral umbrellas have a long history in Mon culture, dating back to ancient times. In fact, inscriptions have been discovered in northern Thailand that mention the use of umbrellas and

Mon literature is a rich collection of works created by the Mon people in Myanmar and Thailand, including chronicles, poems, songs, folktales, and religious texts. "Lik Smin Asah" is a legendary tale about the establishment of the city of Pegu, "Sangada" is a well-known Mon folktale that has been adapted into Thai and Laotian literature as "Sangsinchay", and "Rājādhirāj" or "Razadarit" is a chronicle of the Mon king translated into Burmese as "Razadarit Ayedawbon" and into Thai as "Rachathirat." Mon literature is considered important cultural heritage in Myanmar and Thailand. These works are highly valued for their cultural and historical significance.^{[98][99][100][101][102]}

Religion

The Mon people have a mix of spiritual beliefs and

Festivals celebrating Mon culture are an important part of the Mon community in Myanmar and Thailand. One such festival is the Loi Hamod Festival, which has its roots in the Hariphunchai era and is believed to be the precursor to the Loi Krathong Festival. While the festival is still observed in some Mon communities in

Another traditional Mon festival is the Luknoo Festival, which marks the end of the monsoon season and the beginning of the new year. It involves the launch of homemade rockets, food offerings to spirits, and cultural activities such as music, dance, and games. The festival is an important part of Mon culture and helps to connect with the community, preserve traditions, and bring good luck for the coming year.[109]^[110][111]

The Mon Floating Boat Festival is another traditional festival celebrated during the Mon New Year. It features boat races, music, dance, feasting, releasing lanterns, and gift exchanging. The festival brings the Mon community together to make offerings for peace and prosperity.^{[112][113][114]}

The Hae Hang Hong Tong Ta Khab Festival, also known as the Tawai Tong Ta Khab Festival, is an important tradition of the Mon people in Thailand, primarily in

Mon women wear traditional shawl-like Sbai, known as Yat Toot in Mon language, diagonally over the chest covering one shoulder with one end dropping behind the back. This tradition distinguished Mon women from other 134 ethnic groups in Myanmar. Archaeological evidence from the Dvaravati era portrays that Dvaravati ladies wearing what seems to be a piece of Sbai hanging from their shoulder.^[121] Mon people of Myanmar and Thailand today are the descendants of Dvaravati.

Mon men in Myanmar wear clothes similar to the Bamars. Those living in Thailand have adopted Thai style garments. It seems that Mon clothing has been shaped through its dynastic traditions as well as external influences.

Thanaka is a yellowish-white cosmetic paste made from ground bark that is widely used in Myanmar, particularly by the Mon people. It is applied to the face, arms and legs as a form of sun protection and to beautify the skin. Thanaka has been a part of Mon culture for centuries and remains an important part of traditional beauty and skincare practices in the country.^[122]

Cuisines

Mon cuisines and culinary traditions have had significant influences on the

• 
  Mon banana pudding
• 
  Mon inspired Khao Khluk Kapi dish
• 
  Khanom Chin rice noodles
• 
  Nga baung thohk (steamed fish dish wrapped in banana leaves)

Folk games

Many games in both Myanmar and Thailand were Mon origins. Among them, Len Saba (lit. 'saba tossing game'; Mon: ဝိုင်မ်ဟနဂ်; Burmese: ဂုံညင်းဒိုး), Lor Kon Krok (Rolling a Mortar Bottom) and Mon Son Pa (Mon Hides a Cloth) are the most famous Mon traditional children games and are recognised as Intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO.^[127][128]

Notable people

• Bagan Kingdom and mainland Southeast Asia
• legal treatises
  of Myanmar
• Shin Sawbu – the only female ruler in the recorded history of Burma (now Myanmar)
• Toungoo Empire, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia
• Osoet Pegua – an influential businesswoman in the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the mid-17th century
• Taksin – founder of the Thonburi dynasty of Siam
• Siam (now Thailand
  )
• Amarindra – Queen consort of King Rama I and mother of King Rama II
• Chulalongkorn (Rama V) – the fifth monarch of Chakri dynasty who modernised Thailand
• Debsirindra – Queen consort of Rama IV and mother of Chulalongkorn (Rama V)
• Shaw Loo – the father of western medicine in Myanmar and the first Myanmar in the U.S
• Sir J A Maung Gyi – Governor of British Burma
• Min Thu Wun – a pioneer of literary movement in the 1930s and father of President Htin Kyaw (2016– 2018)
• Htoo Ein Thin – Myanmar pop singer
• Palmy – Thai pop singer
• Nandar Hlaing – Myanmar film actress
• Chintara Sukapatana - Thai film actress
• Natapohn Tameeruks - Thai film actress and model
• Maha Vajiralongkorn
  (now Rama X) of Thailand
• Anand Panyarachun – Prime Minister of Thailand^[129]
• Myint Swe
  – Vice-President of Myanmar
• Lily Pantila Win – Thai film actress and model

Gallery

• 
  Mon people parade at Lamine Pagoda
• 
  Mon Dharma School
• 
  Shwedagon Pagoda, An ancient Mon-style Stupa located in Yangoon, Myanmar
• 
  Zinkyaik Pagoda, An ancient Mon-style Stupa on the top of Zinkyaik Mountain, Mon State, Myanmar
• 
  Mon

  Nonthaburi, Thailand
• 
  The remains of an ancient walled town of the

  San Pa Tong District, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
• 
  Mon

  Hariphunchai-style architecture located in Lampang, Thailand
• 
  Mon

  Hariphunchai-style architecture located in Lamphun, Thailand
• 
  Ananda Temple, The fusion of Mon and Indian architecture located in Bagan, Myanmar
• 
  Mon-style architecture located in Yangoon, Myanmar
• 
  The Golden Rock Stupa located in Mon State, Myanmar
• 
  Hongsa pole with Centipede flag

See also

• Hariphunchai
• Nyah Kur people
• List of Mon monarchs
• Prehistory of Myanmar
• Wat Chana Songkhram
• Wat Paramaiyikawat
• Si Kak Phraya Si
• Khlong Mon
• Mon State Cultural Museum

References

Citations

Sources

• Pan Hla, Nai (1991). "The Major Role of the Mons in Southeast Asia" (PDF). The Journal of the Siam Society. 79 (1): 13–21.
• Blench, Roger (2018). "Waterworld: Lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic" (PDF). Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society: 174–193.
• Andaya, Leonard (2001). "The Search for the 'Origins' of Melayu" (PDF). Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 32 (3). Cambridge University Press: 315–330.
  S2CID 62886471
  .
• Bauer, Christian (1991). "Notes on Mon Epigraphy" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 79 (1): 31–84.
• Bauer, Christian (1991). "Notes on Mon Epigraphy II" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 79 (2): 61–80.
• Peiros, Ilia (2011). "Some thoughts on the problem of the Austro-Asiatic homeland" (PDF). Journal of Language Relationship. 6: 101–113.
  S2CID 212688587
  . Retrieved April 12, 2021.
• Sidwell, Paul (2021). "Austroasiatic Dispersal: the AA "Water-World" Extended". JSEALS - the Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society(Video) {{cite journal}}: External link in |postscript= (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
• Huffman, Franklin (1990). "Burmese Mon, Thai Mon, and Nyah Kur:a synchronic comparison" (PDF). Mon-Khmer Studies. Vol. 16–17. Summer Institute of Linguistics. pp. 31–84.
  ISBN 9780824813437
  . Retrieved April 6, 2021.
• Topich, William; Leitich, Keith (2013). The History of Myanmar. ABC-CLIO.
  ISBN 978-0313357244
  .
• Bauer, Christian (1990a). "Numismatics, dialectology, and the periodization of Old Mon" (PDF). Mon-Khmer Studies. Vol. 16–17. Summer Institute of Linguistics. pp. 155–176.
  ISBN 9780824813437
  . Retrieved April 6, 2021.
• Thomas, David (1990). "On early Monic, Vietic and Bahnaric relations" (PDF). Mon-Khmer Studies. Vol. 16–17. Summer Institute of Linguistics. pp. 177–179.
  ISBN 9780824813437
  . Retrieved April 6, 2021.
• Swearer, Donald (September 20, 2002). "Buddhism in Southeast Asia". In Joseph Kitagawa (ed.). The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture. Routledge. pp. 119–142.
  ISBN 9780700717620
  .
• Bauer, Christian (1990). "Language and Ethnicity: The Mon in Burma and Thailand". In Gehan Wijeyewardene (ed.). Ethnic Groups Across National Boundaries in Mainland Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 14–47.
  ISBN 9813035579
  . Retrieved April 4, 2021.
• South, Ashley (October 3, 2002). Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: The Golden Sheldrake. Routledge; 1st edition.
  ISBN 9780700716098
  .
• Piumsomboon, Patcharin (1982). "Mon people in Nakhon Ratchasima" (PDF). Good things Korat: Korat's Diaries (in Thai). Vol. 3. Office of the National Culture Commission. pp. 98–105. Retrieved February 25, 2021.
• Ngamying, Dusittorn; Keeratiburana, Ying; Thidpad, Pairat (2014). "Mon Dance: Creating Standards to Continue the Performing Arts of Thai-Raman". Asian Culture and History. 7 (1). Canadian Center of Science and Education: 29–34.
  doi:10.5539/ach.v7n1p29
  .
• Smithies, Michael (1972). "Village mons or Bangkok" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 60 (1): 307–333.
• McCormick, Patrick; Jenny, Mathias (2013). "Contact and convergence: The Mon language in Burma and Thailand". Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale. 42 (2): 77–117.
  doi:10.1163/19606028-00422P01
  .
• Matisoff, James A. (1991). "Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Present State and Future Prospects". Annual Review of Anthropology. 20: 469–504.
  doi:10.1146/annurev.an.20.100191.002345
  .
• Jenny, Mathias (2013). "The Mon language: Recipient and donor between Burmese and Thai". Journal of Language and Culture. 31 (2): 5–33.
• Foster, Brian (1973). "Ethnic Identity of the Mons in Thailand" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 61: 203–226.
• Nuchprayoon, Issarang; Louicharoen, Chalisa; Warisa Charoenvej (2007). "Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase mutations in Mon and Burmese of southern Myanmar". Journal of Human Genetics. 53 (1): 48–54.
  S2CID 22331704
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• Stewart, J. A. (1937). "The Song of the Three Mons". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 9 (1): 33–39.
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• Petchaboon, Chatuporn (December 30, 2018). "Food in merit-making ceremonies of Thai-Mon descendants and Mon workers: A case study on food of Sao Kradong Mon community, Bang Pa-in District, Phra Nakhon Sri Ayutthaya Province". Journal of Liberal Arts (in Thai). 10 (2). Prince of Songkla University: 35–57. Retrieved February 25, 2021.
• Jaiklang, Watusiri; Arayaphan, Watsaporn; Muangyai, Nantawan (August 30, 2019). "Needs and Use of Learning Center and Learning Network of Mon Communities in Lamphun Province". Journal of Human Sciences (in Thai). 20 (2): 101–132. Retrieved February 25, 2021.
• Bunjoon, Ong (December 20, 2017). "Ban Thung-Khen: The Contemporary Mon Ethnic Community of Suphanburi" (PDF). Damrong Journal of the Faculty of Archaeology (in Thai). 16 (2): 115–140. Retrieved March 1, 2021.
• Rajanubhab, Damrong (2001). Our Wars With the Burmese. Bangkok: White Lotus Co. Ltd.
  ISBN 9747534584
  .
• Harvey, G. E. (1925). History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.

Further reading

• Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2012). "Historic Lamphun: Capital of the Mon Kingdom of Hariphunchai". Ancient Chiang Mai. Vol. 4. Cognoscenti Books.
  ASIN B006J541LE
  .
• South, Ashley (2013). Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: The Golden Sheldrake. Routledge.
  ISBN 9781136129629
  .

Notes

1. CIA Factbook
   , the Mon make up 2% of the total population of Myanmar (55 million) or approximately 1.1 million people.
2. ^ ^{a b} The exact number of Mon living in other countries is unknown. They are usually counted as Burmese, Siamese or other Asian in censuses.
3. ^ The name "Mangrai" is the historical name used in most modern scholarly applications. "Mengrai," which was popularized by a 1907 publication, is more commonly found in popular usage. It is important to note that "Meng" is the Thai Yuan ethnonym for the Mon people

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mon people.

• Independent Mon News Agency
• Hariphunchai National Museum
• Kao Wao News Group
• The Mon Information Home Page
• Dating and Range of Mon Inscriptions

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