Monarchies in the Americas

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

in the South Atlantic Ocean).
The Dutch Caribbean islands, under the Monarchy of the Netherlands
  Aruba
Danish monarchy

There are 12 monarchies in the

lieutenant governor
.

Historically, some

pre-Columbian societies existed under monarchical forms of government, while others had a decentralised collection of tribal regions under a hereditary chieftain. None of the contemporary monarchies, however, are descended from those pre-colonial royal systems, instead either having their historical roots in European monarchies which colonized the New World
beginning in the 15th century.

From that date on, through the

Latin American nations that were former Spanish colonies share a personal union with the Spanish monarchy). Others gained full sovereignty by legislative paths, such as Canada's patriation of its constitution from the United Kingdom. A number of former colonies became republics
immediately upon achieving self-governance. Haiti and Brazil formed constitutional monarchies with their own resident monarch, though all eventually became republics, and Mexico had two short-lived Mexican Empires propped up by foreign intervention before returning to a republican form of government.

Current monarchies

Commonwealth monarchies

Various countries of the Commonwealth of Nations all have legally independent monarchies, but with succession rules kept in synchronization with other countries that ensure they all have the same monarch (as of 2024, Charles III, who largely presides from the United Kingdom). The monarch's day-to-day governmental and ceremonial duties are generally carried out by an appointed local viceroy or governor-general.

Antigua and Barbuda

The monarchy of

Governor-General of Antigua and Barbuda, Sir Rodney Williams.[1]

Elizabeth and her

Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, opened Antigua and Barbuda's new parliament building, reading a message from his mother, the Queen. The Duke of York visited Antigua and Barbuda in January 2001.[1]

The Bahamas

The monarchy of

.

Belize

Belize was, until the 15th century, a part of the

Governor-General of Belize, Her Excellency Froyla Tzalam
.

Canada

Painting of the Four Mohawk Kings, done during their visit with Queen Anne in 1710

lieutenant governor.[9]

Grenada

The monarchy of

Governor-General of Grenada, currently Dame Cécile La Grenade.[11]

Jamaica

Camilla (centre), at the Half Moon Hotel, Montego Bay
, 13 March 2008

The monarchy of

Former

P.J. Patterson, advocated making Jamaica into a republic by 2007.[15]

Saint Kitts and Nevis

The monarchy of

Governor-General of Saint Kitts and Nevis, currently Sir Tapley Seaton.[17]

Saint Lucia

The

Governor-General of Saint Lucia, currently Sir Errol Charles.[19]

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

The present monarchy of

Governor-General of Vincent and the Grenadines, currently Dame Susan Dougan.[21]

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom possesses a number of

.

The Falkland Islands, off the south coast of Argentina, were simultaneously claimed for

George III of the United Kingdom, in 1765, though the French colony was ceded to Charles III of Spain in 1767. By 1833, however, the islands were under full British control. The South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands were discovered by Captain James Cook for George III in January 1775, and from 1843 were governed by the British Crown-in-Council through the Falkland Islands, an arrangement that stood until the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands were incorporated as a distinct British overseas territory in 1985. The monarch is represented in these regions by Nigel Phillips, who is both the Governor of the Falkland Islands and the Commissioner for South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.[23]

Danish monarchy

Hákon, King of Norway (seated on the left) took possession of Greenland in 1261.

High Commissioner), Mikaela Engell.[25]

Dutch monarchy

King George III. The former Netherlands Antilles were originally discovered by explorers sent in the 1490s by the King of Spain, but were eventually conquered by the Dutch West India Company in the 17th century, whereafter the islands remained under the control of the Dutch Crown as colonial territories. The Netherlands Antilles achieved the status of an autonomous country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1954, from which Aruba was split in 1986 as a separate constituent country of the larger kingdom.[26] The former Netherlands Antilles was dissolved in 2010; two of its islands became constituent countries in their own right (Curaçao and Sint Maarten), while the other three became integral parts of the Netherlands (i.e., the Caribbean Netherlands). The monarch is represented in the constituent countries by the Governor of Aruba, Alfonso Boekhoudt, the Governor of Curaçao, Frits Goedgedrag,[27] and the Governor of Sint Maarten, Eugene Holiday
.

Succession laws

Succession in the American Commonwealth realms, as well as the British overseas territories in the region, was via

absolute primogeniture
for those born after 28 October 2011, whereby the eldest child inherits the throne, regardless of gender. As each realm is sovereign, the change was implemented only once the necessary legal processes were completed in each Commonwealth realm.

Succession to the Danish throne was via male-preference primogeniture from 1953 to 2009, and by absolute primogeniture since 2009.[28][29]

Succession to the Dutch throne was via male-preference primogeniture from 1887 to 1983, and has been by absolute primogeniture since 1983.[30]

Former monarchies

Aztec
Empire

Much about the nature of the

Prussian and Norwegian
.

Aztec

The

Texcoco, and the capital of the empire, Tenochtitlan.[31] While the lineage of Tenochtitlan's kings continued after the city's fall to the Spanish on 13 August 1521, they reigned as puppet rulers of the King of Spain until the death of the last dynastic tlatoani, Luis de Santa María Nanacacipactzin, on 27 December 1565.[32]


Barbados

The monarchy of Barbados had its roots in the

governor-general of Barbados.[34]

In 1966, Elizabeth's cousin, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, opened the second session of the first parliament of the newly established country,[33] before the Queen herself, along with Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, toured Barbados. Elizabeth returned for her Silver Jubilee in 1977, and again in 1989, to mark the 350th anniversary of the establishment of the Barbadian Parliament.[33][35]

Bridgetown, Barbados
, 30 November 2021

Former

general election that year.[37] The vote was, however, postponed again, due to administrative concerns.[38] On 20 September 2021, just over a full year after the announcement for the transition was made, the Constitution (Amendment) (No. 2) Bill, 2021, was introduced to the Parliament of Barbados. Passed on 6 October, the Bill made amendments to the constitution of Barbados, introducing the office of the president to replace the Barbadian monarch as head of state. The next week, on 12 October 2021, incumbent Governor-General of Barbados Dame Sandra Mason was jointly nominated by the Prime Minister and Leader of the Opposition as the sole candidate for the first president of Barbados and was subsequently indirectly elected
on 20 October. Mason took office on 30 November 2021.

Brazil

Maria I of Portugal became the first Queen of Brazil in 1815 with the creation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.
Emperor Pedro II of Brazil

Brazil was created as a kingdom on 16 December 1815, when

declared Brazil an independent Nation on 7 September 1822, leading to the formation of the Empire of Brazil
, a constitutional monarchy.

Prince Pedro became the first Emperor of Brazil on 12 October 1822, with the title of Pedro I (on that date, he was formally offered the Throne of the newly created Empire, accepted it, and was acclaimed as monarch), and his coronation took place on 1 December 1822.

Brazilian Imperial Family, and, according to legitimist claims, de jure Emperor of Brazil; and Prince Pedro Carlos of Orléans-Braganza, head of the Petrópolis line of the Brazilian Imperial Family, and heir to the Brazilian throne according to royalists.[42]

The Brazilian constitution of 1988 called for a general vote on the restoration of the monarchy, which was held in 1993. The royalists went to the polls divided, with the press indicating there were actually two princes aspiring to the Brazilian throne (Dom Luiz de Orleans e Bragança and Dom João Henrique); this created some confusion among the voters.

Haiti

The entire island of

Haitian national assembly declared the president as Emperor Faustin I, thereby re-establishing the Empire of Haiti. But this monarchical reincarnation was to be short lived as well, as a revolution broke out in the empire in 1858, resulting in Faustin abdicating the throne on 18 January 1859.[46]

Inca

Túpac Amaru, the last Sapa Inca of the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba

The

Inca civilization emerged in the Kingdom of Cusco, and expanded to become the Ttahuantin-suyu, or "land of the four sections", each ruled by a governor or viceroy called Apu-cuna, under the leadership of the central Sapa Inca. The Inca Empire eventually fell to the Spanish in 1533, when the last Sapa Inca of the empire, Atahualpa, was captured and executed on 29 August.[47] The conquerors installed other Sapa Inca beginning with Atahualpa's brother, Túpac Huallpa. Manco Inca Yupanqui, originally also a puppet Inca Emperor installed by the Spaniards, rebelled and founded the small independent Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba, and the line continued until the death of Túpac Amaru in 1572.[48]

Maya

The Maya civilization was located on the Yucatán Peninsula and into the isthmian portion of North America, and the northern portion of Central America (Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras) comprised a number of ajawil, ajawlel, or ajawlil – hierarchical polities headed by an hereditary ruler known as a k’uhul ajaw "divine lord" (the Classic Maya term for a sovereign leader).[N 1]

Despite constant warfare and shifts in regional power, most

Itza Maya—was defeated at the Itza capital Nojpetén by the forces of King Philip IV of Spain.[49]

Mexico

Emperor Agustin I of Mexico

With the victory of the

King Ferdinand VII, or another member of the House of Bourbon, agree to be installed as Emperor of Mexico, thereby forming a type of personal union with Spain. The Spanish monarchy, however, refused to recognise the new state, and decreed that it would allow no other European prince to take the throne of Mexico. Thus, the Mexican Agustín de Iturbide was crowned as Augustine I on 19 May 1822, with an official decree of confirmation issued two days following. Only a few months later, Augustine dissolved a factious congress, thereby prompting an enraged Antonio López de Santa Anna to mount a coup, which led to the declaration of a republic on 1 December 1822. In order to end the unrest, Augustine abdicated on 19 March 1823 and left the country, and the Mexican monarchy was abolished. After hearing that the situation in Mexico had only grown worse since his abdication, Iturbide returned from England on 11 May 1824, but was detained upon setting foot in Mexico and, without trial, was executed.[50]

Portrait of Maximilian I of Mexico, by Franz Xaver Winterhalter

Archduke Maximilian of Austria, brother of the Emperor of Austria, and descendant of the prior Habsburg rulers of Mexico as New Spain, was elected Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico by the Assembly of Notables in Mexico City, thereby re-establishing the Mexican monarchy.

The year before,

Napoleon III of France and Mexican monarchists
used the opportunity to overthrow the republic and install a Mexican monarch friendly to the interests of France and the Mexican nobility.

The new Mexican emperor ultimately did not bow to Napoleon's wishes, leading the latter to withdraw the majority of his influence from Mexico. Regardless, Maximilian was still viewed as a French puppet by the liberals. As well, at the end of the

Querétaro on 15 May 1867. The Emperor was arraigned before a military tribunal, sentenced to death, and executed at the Cerro de las Campanas on 19 June 1867.[51]

Kingdom of Mosquitia

The Kingdom of Mosquitia

The Kingdom of Mosquitia controlled the Atlantic coasts of Nicaragua and Honduras from the seventeenth century to the mid-nineteenth century.

The Miskitu, Pech, Rama, Garifuna, Mayagna and later Creole people of Central America who inhabited the territory were governed by the authority of the Mosquitian Monarchy. While the kings had authority over the entire territory; there were other important leaders known as "generals," "governors," and "admirals," who controlled different regions within the Kingdom.

The Kingdom of Mosquitia was similar to that of the Hawaiian kinship system. Many generals tried to become kings, but only Peter, the first known historically, became King Regent, following the death of his brother King Jeremy II. All Miskitu kings, generals, governors and Admirals were close relatives who controlled the kingship for more than 270 years.[52]

According to the oral tradition of the Miskitus, centuries ago, a group of people who were led by their warrior leader Miskut, emigrated from northern South America, traveled the Caribbean coast and settled on the continent, in a place where a river, a lagoon and the sea converged. They called this site Sitawala, the river would later be called Wangki (Coco River), and the lagoon Kip Almuk (Old Cape). The villagers called themselves Miskut kiampka (Miskut family) or Miskut uplika nani (people of Miskut).

The Miskitu chief Robert and executive council

Contacts with pirates (French, Dutch and British) and Africans (seeking refuge to escape slavery) began in the 17th century. In 1629, English Puritans established on Providence Island, what they called New Westminster, the Providence Company. From dealing with British merchants and settlers, the Miskitu people obtain non-traditional products and firearms, which became a new cultural needs. This was also the time when the Kingdom start to gain its popularity.[53]

The Kingdom of Mosquitia became a stronger force against the Spanish when the Miskitu King Edward I, signed a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance with King George II of Great Britain, accepting military protection and the English common law except when English law was in conflict with existing Miskitu customs, culture and traditions.

At the cessation of the

George III of the United Kingdom, via the Convention of London, also known as the Anglo-Spanish Convention, was an agreement negotiated between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Spain concerning the status of British settlements within the territory of Central America. It was signed on 14 July 1786. Britain agreed to evacuate all British settlements from Mosquitia. In exchange, Spain agreed to expand the territory available to British loggers on the Yucatán Peninsula, and allowed them to cut mahogany and other hardwoods. Over the opposition of Mosquitia settler, the agreement was implemented, and the British evacuated more than 2,000 people. Most of them went to Belize, but others were relocated to Jamaica, Grand Cayman and Roatan
.

However,

alliance, present or future. This meant giving King George IV (George Augustus Frederic) the full control of his Kingdom and the recognition of the Mosquitian Kingdom as a sovereign nation. However, in 1860, Great Britain, without any International right, entertained the Treaty of Managua, in which Great Britain claim to recognize Mosquitia as being part of the Nicaraguan territory. This treaty however, reserved, on the basis of historical rights, a self governing enclave known as the Mosquito Reserve
for the people, citing earlier treaty arrangements and historical circumstances. Subsequently, the king was also forced to change his title to chief.

After the chief and the people of the Mosquito Reserve enjoyed 34 years of autonomy, the Nicaraguan government violated the terms of the 1860 Treaty of Managua, and in 1894, sent army troops to the Mosquito Reserve in order to incorporate the region to the rest of the country. In 1905, the Harrison-Altamirano Treaty was signed between Nicaragua and Great Britain which ended the Mosquito Reserve, it's legal and hereditary government, and its Autonomy Statute.

During this same historical time, in 1957, the Hereditary Matriarch, Josephenie Hendy Hebbert Twaska, tried to regain the independence of Mosquitia. However, after the execution of some of her family members, in 1960, she was given the option to be exiled permanently or face death or imprisonment. She moved to Costa Rica and now lives the United States where she is still trying to regain Independence for her people.

Mosquitia regained its Autonomy Statute after three years of war between the FSLN government and a group of alliance between Indigenous and Afro-descendant people of the Mosquitia, when in 1984, the government proposed negotiations to end the war. The first talks of these negotiations were carried out with the Miskitu leader, Brooklyn Rivera. And on 30 October 1987 the Autonomy Statute was published. The Mosquitian Monarchy have still yet to be restored, still many Miskitu people and others still recognize the Miskitu Royal family.[54]

Taíno

The

Carib, the Taíno empire finally succumbed to disease and genocide brought by the Spanish colonisers.[57][58]

Colonial monarchies

Courland

Jacob Kettler, Duke of Courland and Semigallia, tried to establish a colony in the Americas

After a number of failed attempts at colonising

Treaty of Oliwa, a number of attempts were made by the next Duke of Courland (Friedrich Casimir Kettler) at re-colonisation, but these met with failure, and he sold New Courland in 1689.[59]

France

After

King Louis XIV.[60] Some regions were lost to the Spanish or British Crowns through conflict and treaties, and those that were still possessions of the French king on 21 December 1792 came under republican rule when the French monarchy was abolished on that day.[61][62]
Upon several restorations of the monarchy, the royal presence in the Americas ended with the collapse of the Second French Empire under Napoleon III in 1870.

Russia

Tsar Alexander II, Emperor of Russia, who sold Alaska to the United States of America in 1867

The first permanent Russian settlements in what is today the US state of

Peter I called for expeditions across the Bering Strait in 1725,[63] with the region administered by the head of the Russian-American Company as the Emperor's representative. Another Russian outpost, Fort Ross, was established in 1812 in what is now California.[64] The colonies, however, were never profitable enough to maintain Russian interest in the area, with the population only ever reaching a maximum of 700. Fort Ross was sold in 1841, and in 1867, a deal was brokered whereby Tsar Alexander II sold his Alaskan territory to the United States of America for $7,200,000, and the official transfer took place on 30 October that year.[65]

Portugal

Queen Maria I of Portugal, first Queen of Brazil

The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves came into being in the wake of Portugal's war with

colony of Brazil
in 1808. With the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, there were calls for the return of the Portuguese Monarch to Lisbon; the Portuguese Prince Regent enjoyed life in Rio de Janeiro, where the monarchy was at the time more popular and where he enjoyed more freedom, and he was thus unwilling to return to Europe. However, those advocating the return of the Court to Lisbon argued that Brazil was only a colony and that it was not right for Portugal to be governed from a colony. On the other hand, leading Brazilian courtiers pressed for the elevation of Brazil from the rank of a colony, so that they could enjoy the full status of being nationals of the mother-country. Brazilian nationalists also supported the move, because it indicated that Brazil would no longer be submissive to the interests of Portugal, but would be of equal status within a transatlantic monarchy.

Spain

Beginning in 1492 with the voyages of

Viceroyalty of New Spain, the Viceroyalty of Peru, the Viceroyalty of New Granada, and the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in each of which the Spanish monarch was represented by a viceroy. By the early 19th century, however, the Spanish sovereign's possessions in the Americas began a series of independence movements, which culminated in the Crown's loss of all its colonies on the mainland of North and South America by 1825. The remaining colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico were occupied by the United States following the Spanish–American War, ending Spanish rule in the Americas by 1899.[68]

Sweden

For a period of time the French ceded sovereignty of the island of

free port. The capital city of Gustavia
retains its Swedish name.

Self-proclaimed monarchies

1856 daguerreotype of James Strang

These entities were never recognised as de jure or legitimate governments:

James J. Strang

Michigan State Legislature) to have his "kingdom" constituted as a separate county, where his followers held all county offices, and Strang's word was law. U.S. President Millard Fillmore ordered an investigation into Strang's colony, which resulted in Strang's trial in Detroit
for treason, trespass, counterfeiting, and other crimes, but the jury found the "king" innocent of all charges. Strang was eventually assassinated by two disgruntled followers in 1856, and his kingdom—together with his royal regalia—vanished.

Joshua Norton

San Francisco, California in 1849, proclaimed himself "Emperor of These United States" in 1859, later adding the title "Protector of Mexico". Though never recognized by the U.S. or Mexican governments, he was accorded a certain degree of deference within San Francisco itself, including reserved balcony seats (for which he was never charged) at local theatres, and salutes by policemen who passed him on the street. He was active in various civic issues and advocated for the bridging of San Francisco Bay. Specially printed currency authorized by Norton was accepted as legal tender within several businesses in the city. When Norton died in 1880, he was given a lavish funeral attended by over 30,000 persons.[70]

James Harden-Hickey

in the South Atlantic Ocean during the late 19th century. Although initially garnering some newspaper attention, Hickey's claims were ignored or ridiculed by other nations, and the islands eventually were occupied by Brazil.

Redonda

The small uninhabited island of Redonda is part of Antigua and Barbuda, a Commonwealth country. There is a micronation, the "Kingdom of Redonda", which largely consists of people in England claiming to be king of an island they have never visited. The micronation dates to fantasy writer M. P. Shiel, who created a dubious account in 1929 that his father, Matthew Dowdy Shiell, had asked for and been given the title of King of Redonda by the British colonial authorities in 1865. The younger Shiel then took the throne at the age of 15 in 1880. No record exists of such an unlikely grant, nor even of the two visiting the island. Nevertheless, John Gawsworth took up the mantle in 1947 and claimed to be king afterward, sold the kingship to others several times, and sold ranks of nobility. The result of the repeated sales is that at least 9 people claim to all be king of Redonda. None of those involved appear to have ever tried to physically establish themselves on the island itself.[71]

Araucania and Patagonia

Orélie-Antoine de Tounens, claimant to king of Araucania and Patagonia

The

Orelie-Antoine de Tounens in 1860. Nominally, the "kingdom" encompassed the present-day Argentine part of Patagonia and a small segment of Chile, where Mapuche peoples were fighting to maintain their sovereignty against the advancing Chilean and Argentine armed forces.[72] However, Orélie-Antoine never exercised sovereignty over the claimed territory. Rather, he "ruled" for around fourteen months in a small territory around the town Perquenco
(at the time mainly a small Mapuche tent village), which was also the declared capital of his claimed kingdom.

Orélie-Antoine felt that the Mapuche of the region would only be acknowledged by the surrounding powers if they had a European leader such as himself,

occupation of the Araucanía, a historical process which concluded in 1883 with Chile establishing control over the region. Orélie-Antoine was captured in 1862, and was imprisoned in an insane asylum in Chile. After several fruitless attempts to return to his kingdom (thwarted by both Chilean and Argentine authorities), Tounens died penniless in 1878 in Tourtoirac, France. The most recent pretender to this claimed kingdom is Frédéric Luz, who succeeded Jean-Michel Parasiliti di Para.[74]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Both terms appear in early Colonial texts (including Papeles de Paxbolón) where they are used as synonyms of Aztec and Spanish terms for supreme rulers and their domains – tlahtoani (Tlatoani) and tlahtocayotl, rey, or magestad and reino, señor and señorío, or dominio.

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Sources