Monasticism
Monasticism (from
Many monastics live in
Buddhism
The
After the
The Buddhist monastic order consists of the male
Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism. They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity, and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers—providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the bhikkhus. In return for the support of the laity, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character.[3]
A bhikkhu first ordains as a samanera (novice). Novices often ordain at a young age, but generally no younger than eight. Samaneras live according to the
The disciplinary regulations for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. However, celibacy is a fundamental part of this form of monastic discipline.
Christianity
Monasticism in Christianity, which provides the origins of the words "monk" and "monastery", comprises several diverse forms of religious living. It began to develop early in the history of the Church, but is not mentioned in the scriptures. It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e.g. the Rule of St Basil, the Rule of St Benedict) and, in modern times, the Church law of the respective apostolic Christian churches that have forms of monastic living.
The Christian monk embraces the monastic life as a vocation from God. His objective is to imitate the life of Christ as far as possible in preparation for attaining eternal life after death.
Titles for monastics differ between the Christian denominations. In Roman Catholicism and Anglicanism, monks and nuns are addressed as Brother (or Father, if ordained to the priesthood) or Mother, Sister, while in Eastern Orthodoxy, they are addressed as Father or Mother. Women pursuing a monastic life are generally called nuns, religious sisters or, rarely, canonesses, while monastic men are called monks, friars or brothers.
Apparently coincidently, the formation of the first Christian monasteries in Egypt fell in the same time epoch of the Buddhist Parinirvana (the death of Buddha) when subsequently first monasteries in India were formed (2nd–3rd century).[citation needed]
During the fourth and fifth century monasticism allowed women to be removed from traditional lifestyles such as marriage and childbearing to live a life devoted to God. Guided by daily rules and lifestyle guidelines monasticism afforded women great spiritual autonomy. Monasteries served as a space for communal living for monks and nuns many operated under different ranges of severity for rules and punishment of disobedience towards practices that largely originated from the Desert Fathers, these parameters were administer by a superior (Father/Mother). While the practices of female monastic communities varied, they were united by a commitment to a life of prayer, contemplation, and service to others.
Teachings from Shenoute of Atripe, an influential figure in the development of the monastic tradition in Egypt and for his writings on monastic life were also implemented throughout monasteries. Sometimes written in the masculine gender as if exclusively applicable to the male congregations, despite the fact Shenoute commanded a federation that included both male and female congregations.
Later, during 379 CE the first monastery for women was founded in Jerusalem by Saint Melania the Elder. This was a significant moment in history: before then, female monasteries were solely adjunct to male monasteries, although the history of female ascetics predates even the earliest recognized female ascetic pioneers, such as Saint Mary of Egypt, who lived during the 5th century CE.
In fourth century Egypt, Christians felt called to a more reclusive or
Around 318 Saint
- Monastery of Saint Anthony, one of the oldest Christian monasteries in the world.
- Nisibis in Mesopotamia(c. 350), and from this monastery the cenobitic tradition spread in Mesopotamia, Persia, Armenia, Georgia and even India and China.
- St. Sabbas the Sanctified organized the monks of the Judean Desert in a monastery close to Bethlehem (483), now known as Mar Saba, which is considered the mother of all monasteries of the Eastern Orthodox churches.
- Saint Catherine's Monastery was founded between 527 and 565 in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt by order of Emperor Justinian I.
In the West, the most significant development occurred when the rules for monastic communities were written down, the Rule of St Basil being credited with having been the first. The precise dating of the
Today new expressions of
Hinduism
In their quest to attain the
A sādhu's vow of renunciation typically forbids him from:
- owning personal property apart from a bowl, a cup, two sets of clothing and medical aids such as eyeglasses;
- having any contact with, looking at, thinking of or even being in the presence of women;
- eating for pleasure;
- possessing or even touching money or valuables in any way, shape or form;
- maintaining personal relationships.[citation needed]
Islam
Islam forbids the practice of monasticism.
Muhammad told his companions to ease their burden and avoid excess. According to some Sunni hadiths, in a message to some companions who wanted to put an end to their sexual life, pray all night long or fast continuously, Muhammad said: "Do not do that! Fast on some days and eat on others. Sleep part of the night, and stand in prayer another part. For your body has rights upon you, your eyes have a right upon you, your wife has a right upon you, your guest has a right upon you." Muhammad once exclaimed, repeating it three times: "Woe to those who exaggerate [who are too strict]!" And, on another occasion, Muhammad said: "Moderation, moderation! For only with moderation will you succeed."[14]
Monasticism is also mentioned in the following verse of Qur'an:
Then We caused Our messengers to follow in their footsteps; and We caused Jesus, son of Mary, to follow, and gave him the Gospel, and placed compassion and mercy in the hearts of those who followed him. But monasticism they invented - We ordained it not for them – only seeking Allah's pleasure, and they observed it not with right observance. So We give those of them who believe their reward, but many of them are evil-livers.
- —Qur'an Verse 27, Surah Al-Hadid (chapter 57)[15]
Nevertheless, as Christian de Chergé laid out in a conference of the DIMMID in 1995, there are three significant similarities between Muslim and monastic spirituality. Firstly, the central place of obedience in the monastic tradition parallels the importance of surrender or submission in Islam. Secondly, similar to monastic communities which come together several times a day for prayer, Muslims practices ritual prayer (salāt) five times a day. Finally, the Lectio Divina, the meditative reading of Sacred Scripture interpreted as God’s word directed to the reader is echoed by the Muslim conviction that in and through the Qur’ān, God speaks to each individual.[16]
Jainism
In
Judaism
However, until the
Unique among Jewish communities is the monasticism of the Beta Israel of Ethiopia, a practice believed to date to the 15th century.
A form of asceticism was practiced by some individuals in pre–
The
The
Sikhism
While Sikhism treats lust as a sin, it at the same time points out that man must share the moral responsibility by leading the life of a householder. According to Sikhism, being God-centred while being a householder is better than being an ascetic. According to Sikhism, ascetics are not on the right path.[27] When Guru Nanak visited Gorakhmata, he discussed the true meaning of asceticism with some yogis.[28]
Asceticism doesn't lie in ascetic robes, or in walking staff, nor in the ashes. Asceticism doesn't lie in the earring, nor in the shaven head, nor blowing a conch. Asceticism lies in remaining pure amidst impurities. Asceticism doesn't lie in mere words; He is an ascetic who treats everyone alike. Asceticism doesn't lie in visiting burial places, It lies not in wandering about, nor in bathing at places of pilgrimage. Asceticism is to remain pure amidst impurities.
— Guru Nanak[28]
Taoism
Throughout the centuries,
Other religions or movements
- Ananda Marga has both monks and nuns (i.e. celibate male and female acharyas or missionaries) as well as a smaller group of family acharyas. The monks and nuns are engaged in all kinds of direct services to society, so they have no scope for permanent retreat. They do have to follow strict celibacy, poverty and many other rules of conduct during as well as after they have completed their training.
- Bönis believed to have a rich monastic history. Bön monasteries exist today, and the monks there practice Bön-Buddhism.
- Manichaeism had two types of followers, the auditors, and the elect. The elect lived apart from the auditors to concentrate on reducing the material influences of the world. They did this through strict celibacy, poverty, teaching, and preaching. Therefore, the elect were probably at least partially monastic.
- Scientology maintains a "fraternal order" called the Sea Organization or just Sea Org. They work only for the Church of Scientology and have signed billion year contracts. Sea Org members live communally with lodging, food, clothing, and medical care provided by the Church.
- Sikhism and the Baháʼí Faith both specifically forbid the practice of monasticism. Hence there are no Sikh or Baháʼí monk conclaves or brotherhoods.
- Confucianism and Shinto have no known practices of monasticism.
- Quanzhen School of Taoism has monks and nuns[30][31]
- Zhaijiao.[32]
- The Transcendental Meditation movement sponsors two monastic groups: the Thousand-Headed Purusha for men and the Mother Divine for women.[33] The US residences for the groups were in Heavenly Mountain, North Carolina.[33] There is also a Purusha program at an ashram in Uttarkashi, India.[34] The Global Mother Divine Organization describes itself as the women's wing of the Global Country of World Peace.[35]
See also
References
- Encyclopedia Britannica. Archivedfrom the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
- ^ Buddhist Dictionary, Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines by Nyanatiloka Mahathera.
- ^ a b c "What is a bhikkhu?". En.dhammadana.org. Archived from the original on 28 November 2010. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ^ "The Bhikkhuni question". Buddhistchannel.tv. 28 April 2009. Archived from the original on 23 January 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ^ UNESCO World Heritage. Augustinian Monastery, Erfurt extension application Archived 4 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine (Accessed: 29 May 2017)
- ^ Aditya Thakur (1 November 2014). "Just A Handful Of Hindus Know Adi Shankaracharya Revived Their Religion". Topyaps. Archived from the original on 3 May 2014. Retrieved 16 May 2014.
- ISBN 1-884852-02-5
- ISBN 0-19-563846-8
- ISBN 0-691-08953-1
- ISBN 1-884852-02-5.
- ^ "33. How Does Islam View Monasticism?".
- ^ "Hazrat Sawdah". www.inter-islam.org. Archived from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
- ISBN 978-1-904063-46-9.
- ^ "The Ideal Muslim". Archived from the original on 23 March 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
- ^ Qur'an Verse 27, Surah Al-Hadid (chapter 57)
- ^ Skudlarek, OSB, William (2 April 2020). "Monastic Interreligious Dialogue". Paulist Fathers. Retrieved 25 February 2024.
- ^ Singhvi, Mrs. Sushila. "Jainism At A Glance". Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
- ^ Maimonides Mishne Torah Hilkhot Nazirut 1:1
- ^ Maimonides Hilkhot Nazirut 3:1
- ^ Eliach, Y. There Once Was a World (Back Bay Books, 1998), p. 780.
- Touro CollegeLibraries. p. 79.
- ^ F. F. Bruce, Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Paternoster Press, 1956.
- ISBN 90-04-14699-7.
- ^ Ilani, Ofri (13 March 2009). "Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 18 April 2010. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
- ^ McGirk, Tim (16 March 2009). "Scholar Claims Dead Sea Scrolls 'Authors' Never Existed". Time. Archived from the original on 20 March 2009. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
- ^ "Rachel Elior Responds to Her Critics". Jim West. 15 March 2009. Archived from the original on 21 March 2009. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
- ISBN 978-8170103011.
- ^ ISBN 978-8171418794.
- ^ Schipper, Kristopher. The Taoist Body. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993 [original French version 1982]), p. 220.
- ^ 全真道是道教发展史上的一个革新派[permanent dead link]
- ^ "论宋元道教的社会化存在形态". Archived from the original on 31 July 2013.
- ^ "gaya/佛教圖書館館訊/第二十一/二十二期/關於臺灣佛教寺院調查之出版概論". www.gaya.org.tw. Archived from the original on 16 December 2010. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8147-9450-0.
- ^ Massing, Dana (11 August 2007). "TM quiets mind, rests body says Erie man". Erie Times-News. p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
- ^ "The Global Mother Divine Organization: About Us". gmdousa.org. Archived from the original on 30 November 2011.
Further reading
- Fracchia, Charles. Living Together Alone: The New American Monasticism. Harper & Row, 1979. ISBN 0-06-063011-6.
- Gruber, Mark. 2003. Sacrifice In the Desert: A Study of an Egyptian Minority Through the Lens of Coptic Monasticism. Lanham: University Press of America. ISBN 0-7618-2539-8
- Johnston, William M. (ed.). 2000. Encyclopedia of Monasticism. 2 vols., Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
- Knowles, David. Christian Monasticism. London: World University Library, 1969
- Lawrence, C. H. 2001. Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages (3rd Edition). New York: Longmans. ISBN 0-582-40427-4
- Zarnecki, George. 1985. "The Monastic World: The Contributions of the Orders". pp. 36–66, in Evans, Joan (ed.). 1985. The Flowering of the Middle Ages. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
External links
- The Hermits by Charles Kingsley (Gutenberg)
- Links to Coptic Orthodox Monasteries of Egypt and the world
- Historyfish.net: texts and articles regarding the Western Christian monastic tradition.
- Abbot Gasquet's English Monastic Life. Full Text + Illustrations.
- Public Domain Photochrom photographs, Abbeys, Cathedrals, Holy Sites and the Holy Land.
- History of Monasticism
- Monasticism Immaculate Heart of Mary's Hermitage
- "Woman" – The correct perspective for the monastic – An eastern point of view
- American Benedictines