Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty

The Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty or the Song-Yuan War beginning under Ögedei Khan (r. 1229–1241) and completed under Kublai Khan (r. 1260–1294) was the final step of the Mongol conquest of China. With the conquest the Mongols ruled all of the continental East Asia under the Yuan dynasty (a division of the Mongol Empire). It is also considered the Mongol Empire's last great military achievement.^[2]

Background

Before the

From the winter of 1230 to the autumn of 1231, the Mongols forcibly passed through the Song dynasty. In the region centered on the three passes of Shukou (蜀口), they entered into a series of battles with the Song army. This was the second and largest armed conflict between them before the Mongol conquest of Song officially began.[5]

After Mongol conquest of Jin

In 1233 the Song dynasty finally became an ally of the Mongols, who agreed to share territories south of the Yellow River with the Song. Song general Meng Gong defeated the Jin general Wu Xian and directed his troops to besiege the city of Caizhou, to which the last emperor of the Jurchen had fled. With the help of the Mongols, the Song armies were finally able to extinguish the Jin dynasty that had occupied northern China for more than a century. A year later, the Song generals fielded their armies to occupy the old capitals of the Song. They advanced as far as Kaifeng but were completely repelled by the Mongol garrisons under Tachir, a descendant of Boorchu, who was a famed companion of Genghis Khan.

The Mongol troops, headed by sons of the Ögedei Khan, started their slow but steady invasion of the south. The Song forces resisted fiercely, which resulted in a prolonged set of campaigns; however, the primary obstacles to the prosecution of their campaigns was unfamiliar terrain that was inhospitable to their horses, new diseases, and the need to wage naval battles, a form of warfare completely alien to the masters of the steppe. This combination resulted in one of the most difficult and prolonged wars of the Mongol conquests.^[6] The Chinese offered the fiercest resistance among all the Mongols fought, the Mongols required every single advantage they could gain and "every military artifice known at that time" in order to win.^[7]

A greater amount of "stubborn resistance" was put up by Korea and Song towards the Mongol invasions than the others in Eurasia who were swiftly crushed by the Mongols at a lightning pace.^[8]

The Mongol force which invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256.^[9]

First stage (1235–1248)

From 1235 on, the

Many Han Chinese defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. There were 4 Han Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ogödei Khan.^{[13][14][15][16]}

The conflicts between the Mongols and the Song troops took place in the area of Chengdu. When Töregene sent her envoys to negotiate peace, the Song imprisoned them.^[17] The Mongols invaded Sichuan in 1242. Their commanders ordered Han Chinese tumen general Zhang Rou and Chagaan (Tsagaan) to attack the Song. When they pillaged Song territory, the Song court sent a delegation to negotiate a ceasefire. Chagaan and Zhang Rou returned north after the Mongols accepted the terms.^[18]

The Mongols made heavy use of indigenous ethnic minority soldiers in southern China rather than Mongols. The

As the Mongols had dug themselves pits under the earth where they were sheltered from missiles, we decided to bind with iron the machines called zhen tian lei [thunder-shaking-the-sky]... and lowered them into the places[20]

where the translation of the term for the device is that of Prof. Partington, who describes it as an iron pot filled with [huo] yao, literally "fire drug", a low-nitrate gunpowder or proto-gunpowder, sometimes lowered on chains, that sent forth "fire… out of every part", with an incendiary effect over many yards that could pierce metal to which it was attached, producing a "noise like thunder" that could be heard for miles, with the result that "the men and the oxhides were all broken into fragments (chieh sui) flying in all directions".^[21][22]

Second stage (1251–1260)

The Mongol attacks on

The central government of the Southern Song meanwhile was unable to cope with the challenge of the Mongols and new peasant uprisings in the region of modern Fujian led by Yan Mengbiao and Hunan. The court of Emperor Lizong was dominated by consort clans, Yan and Jia, and the eunuchs Dong Songchen and Lu Yunsheng.^[citation needed] In 1260, Jia Sidao became chancellor who took control over the new emperor Zhao Qi (posthumous title Song Duzong) and expelled his opponents like Wen Tianxiang and Li Fu. Because the financial revenue of the late Southern Song state was very low, Jia Sidao tried to reform the regulations for the merchandise of lands with his state field law.^{[citation needed]}

Gunpowder weapons like the tuhuo gun (突火槍) , which fired bullets from bamboo tubes, were deployed by the Chinese against the Mongol forces.^[32]

The Tusi chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling the Chiefdom of Bozhou which was recognized by the Song dynasty and Tang dynasty also received recognition by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty and later by the Ming dynasty. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the Shu Han era king Huoji who helped Zhuge Liang against Meng Huo. They were also recognized by the Ming dynasty.^[33][34]

Prelude, and surrender of Song (1260–1276)

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After

The Yuan dynasty created a "Han Army" (漢軍) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附軍).[36] Southern Song Chinese troops who defected and surrendered to the Mongols were granted Korean women as wives by the Mongols, whom the Mongols earlier took during their invasion of Korea as war booty.^[37] The many Song Chinese troops who defected to the Mongols were given oxen, clothes and land.^[38] As prizes for battlefield victories, lands sectioned off as appanages were handed by the Yuan dynasty to Chinese military officers who defected to the Mongol side. The Yuan gave defecting Song Chinese soldiers juntun, a type of military farmland.^[39]

In 1268, the Mongol advance was halted at the city of

Explosive shells had been in use in China for centuries, but the counterweight system of the trebuchet (as opposed to the torsion-type) gave greater range and accuracy while also making it easier to judge the force generated (versus by the torsion from repeated windings).[47] As such, the counterweight trebuchet built by the Persians were, practically speaking, greater in range,^[48] and so could assist in destroying the walls at Fancheng with greater safety to the Mongol forces.^{[citation needed]} The Muslim and additional Chinese engineers operated the artillery and siege engines for the Mongol armies.^[49] Hence, the Chinese, who were the first to invent the traction trebuchet,^{[citation needed]} now faced Persian-designed counterweight trebuchets on the side of the Mongol army, so by 1273 the Chinese were led to build their own counterweight trebuchets; as a Chinese account states, "In 1273 the frontier cities had all fallen. But Muslim trebuchets were constructed with new and ingenious improvements, and different kinds became available, far better than those used before."^[50]

During the siege, both the Mongol and Song forces used thunder crash bombs, a type of incendiary gunpowder weapon of cast iron, filled with gunpowder and which was delivered via trebuchet or other means. The effects of these shells on men and natural materials was devastating; the noise was thunderous and resounded for many miles, while the bomb's casing could penetrate iron armor during the explosion.^[22] The Mongols also utilized siege crossbows, while the Song used fire arrows and fire lances.^{[citation needed]}

Political infighting in the Song also contributed to the fall of Xiangyang and Fancheng, due to the power of the Lü family. Many questioned their allegiance to the Song as morale was collapsing, and the Emperor barred Jia Sidao himself from the command. Li Tingzhi, an enemy of the Lü family, was appointed commander. Jia permitted the Lüs to ignore Li's orders, resulting in a fractious command. Li was then unable to relieve Xiangyang and Fancheng, managing only temporary resupply during several breaks in the siege.^[51]

Bayan of the Baarin, the Mongol commander, then sent half of his force up-river to wade to the south bank in order to build a bridge across to take the Yang lo fortress; three thousand Song boats came up the Han river and were repulsed, with fifty boats destroyed and 2,000 dead.^{[citation needed]} In the maritime engagements, the Song forces used paddle ships,^[52] and on some ships at least, fire lance, siege crossbows, and incendiary devices were deployed against Mongol forces.^[50]

Xiangyang's commander Lü Wenhuan from the Lü family then surrendered to the Mongol commander and was appointed as governor of Xiangyang. The entire force, now including the yielding commander, sailed down the Yangtze, and the forts along the way surrendered, as this commander - now allied with the Mongols - had also commanded many of the down-river garrisons. Lü Wenhuan persuaded the rest of his family to switch sides.

In 1273, Fancheng capitulated, the Mongols putting the entire population to death by sword to terrorize the inhabitants of Xiangyang. After the surrender of Xiangyang, several thousand ships were deployed. The Song fleet, despite their deployment as a coastal defense fleet or coast guard more than an operational navy, was more than a match for the Mongols. Under his great general Bayan, Khublai unleashed a riverine attack upon the defended city of Xiangyang on the Han River. The Mongols ultimately prevailed, but only after five more years of struggle.^[54]

Kublai had founded the Yuan dynasty in 1271, and by 1273, the Mongols had emerged victorious on the Han River.^{[citation needed]} The Yangtse River was opened for a large fleet that could conquer the Southern Song empire. A year later, the child-prince Zhao Xian was made emperor. Resistance continued, resulting in Bayan's massacre of the inhabitants of Changzhou in 1275 and mass suicide of the defenders at Changsha in January 1276. When the Yuan Mongol-Chinese troops and fleet advanced and one prefecture after the other submitted to the Yuan, Jia Sidao offered his own submission, but the Yuan chancellor Bayan refused.

The last contingents of the Song dynasty were heavily defeated, the old city of Jiankang (Jiangsu) fell, and Jia Sidao was killed. The capital of Song, Lin'an (Hangzhou), was defended by Wen Tianxiang and Zhang Shijie.

When Bayan and Dong Wenbing camped outside Lin'an in February 1276, the Song

Historian Patricia Buckley Ebrey notes that the Mongol Yuan dynasty treated the Jurchen Wanyan royal family harshly, butchering them by the hundreds as well as the Tangut emperor of Western Xia when they defeated him earlier. However, Ebrey also notes the Mongols were comparatively lenient on the Han Chinese Zhao royal family of the Southern Song, sparing both the Southern Song royals in the capital Hangzhou like the Emperor Gong of Song and his mother, as well as the civilians inside it, allowing them to go about their normal business and even rehiring Southern Song officials. The Mongols did not take the southern Song palace women for themselves but instead had Han Chinese artisans in Shangdu marry the palace women.^[55] The Mongol emperor Kublai Khan even granted a Mongol princess from his own Borjigin family as a wife to the surrendered Han Chinese Southern Song Emperor Gong of Song and they fathered a son together named Zhao Wanpu.^[56][57]

Emperor Gong abdicated, but faithful loyalists like Zhang Jue, Wen Tianxiang, Zhang Shijie and

Last stand of the Song loyalists (1276–1279)

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Empress Dowager Xie had secretly sent the child emperor's two brothers to Fuzhou. The strongholds of the Song loyalists fell one by one: Yangzhou in 1276, Chongqing in 1277 and Hezhou in 1279. The loyalists fought the Mongols in the mountainous Fujian–Guangdong–Jiangxi borderland. In February 1279, Wen Tianxiang, one of the Song loyalists, was captured, transported to and executed at the Yuan capital Khanbaliq (Dadu, modern Beijing

).

The end of the Mongol-Song war occurred on 19 March 1279, when 1000 Chinese warships faced a fleet of 300 to 700 Yuan Mongol warships at

Li Heng (1236–1285), a Tangut

. Catapults as a weapon system were rejected by Kublai's court, for they feared the Song fleet would break out if they used such weapons. Instead, they developed a plan for a maritime siege, in order to starve the Song into submission.

From the outset, there was a defect in the Song tactics that would later be exploited by Yuan at the conclusion of the battle. The Song wanted a stronger defensive position, and the Song fleet "roped itself together in a solid mass[,]" in an attempt to create a nautical skirmish line. Results were disastrous for the Song: they could neither attack nor maneuver. Escape was also impossible, for the Song warships lacked any nearby base. On 12 March, a number of Song combatants defected to the Mongol side. On 13 March, a Song squadron attacked some of the Mongols' northern patrol boats, in what may have been an attempted breakout. However, the attempt failed.

By 17 March, Li Heng and Zhang Hongfan opted for a decisive battle. Four Mongol fleets moved against the Song: Li Heng attacked from the north and northwest; Zhang would proceed from the southwest; and the last two fleets attacked from the south and west. Weather favored the Mongols that morning; heavy fog and rain obscured the approach of Li Heng's dawn attack. The movement of the tide and the southwestern similarly benefited the movement of the Mongol fleet which, in short order, appeared to the north of the Song. It was an unusual attack in that the Mongol fleet engaged the Song fleet stern first.

Prior to the battle, the Mongols constructed archery platforms for their

marines

. The position enabled the archers to direct a higher, more concentrated rate of missile fire against the enemy. Fire teams of seven or eight archers manned these platforms, and they proved devastatingly effective as the battle commenced at close quarters.

Li Heng's first attack cut the Song rope that held the Chinese fleet together. Fighting raged in close quarters combat. Before midday, the Song lost three of their ships to the Mongols. By forenoon, Li's ships broke through the Song's outer line, and two other Mongol squadrons destroyed the Song formation in the northwest corner. Around this time, the tide shifted; Li's ships drifted to the opposite direction, the north.

The Song believed that the Mongols were halting the attack and dropped their guard. Zhang Hongfan's fleet, riding the northern current, then attacked the Song ships. Zhang was determined to capture the Song admiral, Zuo Tai. The Yuan flagship was protected by shields to negate the Song missile fire. Later, when Zhang captured the Song flagship, his own vessel was riddled with arrows. Li Heng's fleet also returned to the battle. By late afternoon, the battle was over, and the last of the Song navy surrendered.

The Song dynasty elite were unwilling to submit to Mongol rule, and opted for death by suicide. The Song councilor Lu Xiufu, who had been tasked with holding the child-emperor Zhao Bing of the Song in his arms during the battle, also elected to join the Song leaders in death. It is uncertain whether he or others decided that the young Emperor should die as well. In any event, the councilor jumped into the sea, still holding the child in his arms. Tens of thousands of Song officials and women also threw themselves into the sea and drowned. With the death of the last Song emperor, the final remnants of the Song resistance were eliminated. The victory of this naval campaign marked the completion of Kublai's conquest of China, and the onset of the consolidated Mongol Yuan dynasty.

Remnants of the Song imperial family continued to live in the Yuan dynasty like Emperor Gong of Song, Zhao Mengfu, and Zhao Yong. Zhao Mengfu spent his time painting at the Yuan court and was personally interviewed by Kublai Khan.^{[citation needed]} The Vietnamese Annals recorded that remnants of the Song imperial family arrived in Thăng Long, the capital of the Đại Việt, in the winter of 1276 aboard thirty ships and eventually settled in the Nhai-Tuân district and opened a market selling medicine and silk.^[58]

Siege policy

James Waterson cautioned against attributing the population drop in northern China to Mongol slaughter since much of the population may have moved to southern China under the Southern Song or died of disease and famine as agricultural and urban city infrastructure were destroyed.^[59] The Mongols spared cities from massacre and sacking if they surrendered, such as Kaifeng, which was surrendered to Subetai by Xu Li,^[60] Yangzhou, which was surrendered to Bayan by Li Tingzhi's second in command after Li Tingzhi was executed by the Southern Song,^[61] and Hangzhou, which was spared from sacking when it surrendered to Kublai Khan.^[62] Han Chinese and Khitan soldiers defected en masse to Genghis Khan against the Jurchen Jin dynasty.^[63] Towns which surrendered were spared from sacking and massacre by Kublai Khan.^[64] The Khitan reluctantly left their homeland in Manchuria as the Jin moved their primary capital from Beijing south to Kaifeng and defected to the Mongols.^[65]

Capitulation of Nobles and Tusi vassal chiefdoms in southwestern China

Many

Kingdom of Dali, the Han Chinese Yang family ruling the Chiefdom of Bozhou with its seat at the castle Hailongtun, Chiefdom of Lijiang

,

Kingdom of Qocho

.

The Han Chinese nobles Duke Yansheng and Celestial Masters continued possessing their titles in the Yuan dynasty since the previous dynasties.

Chinese exile in Vietnam and Champa helping anti-Mongol resistance

Southern Song Chinese military officers and civilian officials fled to overseas countries, namely Vietnam and Champa. In Vietnam, they intermarried with the Vietnamese ruling elite, and in Champa, they served the government there as recorded by Zheng Sixiao.^[66] Southern Song soldiers served in the Vietnamese army prepared by emperor Trần Thánh Tông against the second Mongol invasion.^[67]

Professor Liam Kelley noted that people from Song like Zhao Zhong and Xu Zongdao escaped to Vietnam (then under the

Đại Việt Sử Ký Toàn Thư which said "When the Song [dynasty] was lost, its people came to us. Nhật Duật took them in. There was Zhao Zhong who served as his personal guard. Therefore, among the accomplishments in defeating the Yuan [i.e., Mongols], Nhật Duật had the most."^[68][69]

Notes

1. ^ An initial coalition invasion force of ninety Tumens at roughly two-thirds strength, including Mongols, Chinese, Khitans, Jurchens, Alan Asuds, Turkic people, Central Asians, Cuan-bo Bai people and Yi people from the Kingdom of Dali.

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