Mongol invasions and conquests

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Mongol invasions and conquests

Expansion of the Mongol Empire 1206–94
Date1207–1405
Location
Eurasia
Casualties and losses
Total dead: 20–57 million[1][2][3]

The Mongol invasions and conquests took place during the 13th and 14th centuries, creating history's largest contiguous empire, the Mongol Empire (1206–1368), which by 1260 covered large parts of Eurasia. Historians regard the Mongol devastation as one of the deadliest episodes in history.[4][5]

Overview

The Mongol Empire developed in the course of the 13th century through a series of victorious campaigns throughout Eurasia. At its height, it stretched from the

Pacific to Central Europe. In contrast with later "empires of the sea" such as the European colonial powers, the Mongol Empire was a land power, fueled by the grass-foraging Mongol cavalry and cattle.[a] Thus most Mongol conquest and plundering took place during the warmer seasons, when there was sufficient grazing for their herds.[6] The rise of the Mongols was preceded by 15 years of wet and warm weather conditions from 1211 to 1225 that allowed favourable conditions for the breeding of horses, which greatly assisted their expansion.[7]

As the Mongol Empire began to

conflict between the Mongols and Eastern European polities continued for centuries. Mongols continued to rule China into the 14th century under the Yuan dynasty, while Mongol rule in Persia persisted into the 15th century under the Timurid Empire. In India, the later Mughal Empire
survived into the 19th century.

History and outcomes

Central Asia

Main article:
Mongol conquest of Central Asia
Battle of Vâliyân (spring of 1221) during the invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire

Uighurs of Qocho surrendered and joined the empire. He then continued expansion via conquest of the Qara Khitai[8] and of the Khwarazmian Empire
.

Large areas of Islamic Central Asia and northeastern Persia were seriously depopulated,[9] as every city or town that resisted the Mongols was destroyed. Each soldier was given a quota of enemies to execute according to circumstances. For example, after the conquest of Urgench, each Mongol warrior – in an army of perhaps two tumens (20,000 troops) – was required to execute 24 people, or nearly half a million people per said army.[10]

Against the

Chinese general Qi Kongzhi.[13]

During the Mongol attack on the Middle East ruled by the Mamluk Sultanate, most of the Mamluk military was composed of Kipchaks and the Golden Horde's supply of Kipchak fighters replenished the Mamluk armies and helped them fight off the Mongols.[11]

Hungary became a refuge for fleeing Cumans.[14]

The decentralized, stateless Kipchaks only converted to Islam after the Mongol conquest, unlike the centralized Karakhanid entity comprising the Yaghma, Qarluqs, and Oghuz who converted earlier to world religions.[15]

The Mongol conquest of the Kipchaks led to a merged society with a Mongol ruling class over a Kipchak-speaking populace which came to be known as Tatar, and which eventually absorbed Armenians, Italians, Greeks, and Crimean Goths in Crimea, the origin of the current Crimean Tatars.[16]

West Asia

Siege of Baghdad
in 1258.
Main articles:
Siege of Baghdad (1258)

The Mongols conquered, by battle or voluntary surrender, the areas of present-day Iran, Iraq, the

Hulagu Khan during his conquest of the Middle East.[b]

East Asia

Main articles: Mongol invasions of Korea, China, Japan, and Mongol invasions of Tibet
Kingdom of Dali into a vassal state in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols and helped them conquer the rest of Yunnan, forced Korea to capitulate through nine invasions, but failed in their attempts to invade Japan, their fleets scattered by kamikaze
storms.

Mongol Empire's conquest of Chinese regimes including Western Liao, Jurchen Jin, Song, Western Xia and Dali kingdoms.

The Mongols' greatest triumph was when Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty in China in 1271. The dynasty created a "Han Army" (漢軍) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附軍).[18]

The Mongol force which invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256.[19]

The Yuan dynasty established the top-level government agency

semi-autonomous vassal state
of the Yuan dynasty for about 80 years.

North Asia

Main article:
Mongol conquest of Siberia

By 1206,

Irtysh River to an old companion, Qorchi. While the Barga, Tumed, Buriats, Khori, Keshmiti, and Bashkirs were organized in separate thousands, the Telengit, Tolos, Oirats and Yenisei Kirghiz were numbered into the regular tumens[21] Genghis created a settlement of Chinese craftsmen and farmers at Kem-kemchik after the first phase of the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty. The Great Khans favored gyrfalcons
, furs, women, and Kyrgyz horses for tribute.

Western Siberia came under the Golden Horde.[22] The descendants of Orda Khan, the eldest son of Jochi, directly ruled the area. In the swamps of western Siberia, dog sled Yam stations were set up to facilitate collection of tribute.

In 1270,

Kipchak general Tutugh reoccupied the Kyrgyz lands in 1293. From then on the Yuan dynasty controlled large portions of Central and Eastern Siberia.[24]

Eastern and Central Europe

Main article: Mongol invasion of Europe
The Battle of Legnica took place during the first Mongol invasion of Poland.
The Mongol invasion in the 13th century led to construction of mighty stone castles, such as Spiš Castle in Slovakia.

The Mongols invaded and destroyed

Novgorod and Pskov.[25]

Kiev in February 1246 and wrote:

They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery.[26]

The Mongol invasions displaced populations on a scale never seen before in central Asia or eastern Europe. Word of the Mongol hordes' approach spread terror and panic.[27] The violent character of the invasions acted as a catalyst for further violence between Europe's elites and sparked additional conflicts. The increase in violence in the affected eastern European regions correlates with a decrease in the elite's numerical skills, and has been postulated as a root of the Great Divergence.[28]

South Asia

Main article: Mongol invasions of India

From 1221 to 1327, the Mongol Empire launched several invasions into the Indian subcontinent. The Mongols occupied parts of NW South Asia for decades. However, they failed to penetrate past the outskirts of Delhi and were repelled from the interior of India. Centuries later, the Mughals, whose founder Babur had Mongol roots, established their own empire in India.

Southeast Asia

Main articles: First, Second Mongol invasion of Burma, Mongol invasions of Vietnam, and Mongol invasions of Java

Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty invaded Burma between 1277 and 1287, resulting in the capitulation and disintegration of the Pagan Kingdom. However, the invasion of 1301 was repulsed by the Burmese Myinsaing Kingdom. The Mongol invasions of Vietnam (Đại Việt) and Java resulted in defeat for the Mongols, although much of Southeast Asia agreed to pay tribute to avoid further bloodshed.[29][30][31][32][33][34]

The Mongol invasions played an indirect role in the establishment of major Tai states in the region by recently migrated Tais, who originally came from Southern China, in the early centuries of the second millennium.[35] Major Tai states such as Lan Na, Sukhothai, and Lan Xang appeared around this time.

Death toll

Main article: Destruction under the Mongol Empire

Due to the lack of contemporary records, estimates of the violence associated with the Mongol conquests vary considerably.[36] Not including the mortality from the Plague in Europe, West Asia, or China[37] it is possible that between 20 and 57 million people were killed between 1206 and 1405 during the various campaigns of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, and Timur.[38][39][40] The havoc included battles, sieges,[41] early biological warfare,[42] and massacres.[43][44]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ "Of necessity, the Mongols did most of their conquering and plundering during the warmer seasons, when there was sufficient grass for their herds. [...] Fuelled by grass, the Mongol empire could be described as solar-powered; it was an empire of the land. Later empires, such as the British, moved by ship and were wind-powered, empires of the sea. The American empire, if it is an empire, runs on oil and is an empire of the air."[6]
  2. ^ "This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulagu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance."[17]

References

  1. OCLC 8159945824
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  2. ISBN 9780140510768
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  3. ISBN 0-12-765660-X
  4. ^ "What Was the Deadliest War in History?". WorldAtlas. 10 September 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-10-09. Retrieved 2019-02-04.
  5. ^ White, M. (2011). Atrocities: The 100 deadliest episodes in human history. WW Norton & Company. p270.
  6. ^ a b "Invaders". The New Yorker. 18 April 2005. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
  7. PMID 24616521
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  8. JSTOR 604669
    .
  9. ^ World Timelines – Western Asia – AD 1250–1500 Later Islamic Archived 2010-12-02 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ "Central Asian world cities Archived 2012-01-18 at the Wayback Machine", University of Washington.
  11. ^
    S2CID 162439703
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  12. JSTOR 41933117
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  13. ISBN 978-0-520-04562-0. Archived
    from the original on 2024-01-01. Retrieved 2020-11-01.
  14. JSTOR 3014440
    .
  15. JSTOR 41928154
    .
  16. S2CID 162929705
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  17. ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0. Archived
    from the original on 2024-01-01. Retrieved 2011-11-28.
  18. ^ Hucker 1985 Archived 2015-09-10 at the Wayback Machine, p. 66.
  19. JSTOR 606298
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  20. The Secret History of the Mongols
    , ch.V
  21. ^ C.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 502
  22. ^ Nagendra Kr Singh, Nagendra Kumar – International Encyclopaedia of Islamic Dynasties, p.271
  23. ^ History of Yuan 《 元史 》，
  24. ^ C.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.503
  25. ^ "BBC Russia Timeline". BBC News. 2012-03-06. Archived from the original on 2018-03-18. Retrieved 2018-03-31.
  26. ^ The Destruction of Kiev Archived 2011-04-27 at the Wayback Machine
  27. ISBN 9780742567658. Archived
    from the original on 2023-07-29. Retrieved 2015-06-20.
  28. S2CID 219040903
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  29. ^ Taylor 2013 Archived 2023-04-13 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 103, 120.
  30. ^ ed. Hall 2008 Archived 2016-10-22 at archive.today, p. 159 Archived 2023-04-06 at the Wayback Machine.
  31. ISBN 9780231511100. Archived
    from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 1 November 2020 – via Google Books.
  32. ^ Gunn 2011 Archived 2023-04-06 at the Wayback Machine, p. 112.
  33. ISBN 9780684189017. Archived
    from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 4 June 2020 – via Google Books.
  34. ^ Woodside 1971 Archived 2023-04-05 at the Wayback Machine, p. 8.
  35. ISBN 978-0521800860
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  36. ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count". necrometrics.com. Archived from the original on 2022-01-20. Retrieved 2019-02-04.
  37. ISBN 978-92-64-03763-2.[page needed
    ]
  38. OCLC 8159945824
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  39. ISBN 9780140510768
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  40. ISBN 0-12-765660-X
  41. ^ "Mongol Siege of Kaifeng | Summary". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2022-01-14. Retrieved 2019-02-04.
  42. PMID 12194776
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  43. ProQuest 1308651973
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  44. ^ Halperin, C. J. (1987). Russia and the Golden Horde: the Mongol impact on medieval Russian history (Vol. 445). Indiana University Press.

Further reading

  • Boyle, J.A. The Mongol World Enterprise, 1206–1370 (London 1977)[ISBN missing]
  • Hildinger, Erik. Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700
  • May, Timothy. The Mongol Conquests in World History (London: Reaktion Books, 2011) online review; excerpt and text search
  • Morgan, David. The Mongols (2nd ed. 2007)
  • Rossabi, Morris. The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2012)
  • Saunders, J. J. The History of the Mongol Conquests (2001) excerpt and text search
  • Srodecki, Paul. Fighting the ‘Eastern Plague'. Anti-Mongol Crusade Ventures in the Thirteenth Century. In: The Expansion of the Faith. Crusading on the Frontiers of Latin Christendom in the High Middle Ages, ed. Paul Srodecki and Norbert Kersken (Turnhout: Brepols 2022), ISBN 978-2-503-58880-3, pp. 303–327.
  • Turnbull, Stephen. Genghis Khan and the Mongol Conquests 1190–1400 (2003) excerpt and text search
  • Bayarsaikhan Dashdondog. The Mongols and the Armenians (1220–1335). BRILL (2010)

Primary sources

  • Rossabi, Morris. The Mongols and Global History: A Norton Documents Reader (2011)
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