Mongol invasions of Anatolia
Mongol invasions of Anatolia | |
---|---|
Part of the East Anatolia | |
Result |
Mongol Empire victory
|
Ilkhanate
Mongol invasions of Anatolia occurred at various times, starting with the campaign of 1241–1243 that culminated in the
By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks due to the collapse of the Seljuk dynasty in Rum. The Turkmen beyliks were under the control of the Mongols through declining Seljuk sultans.[4][5] The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the Ilkhanids.[6] The Ottoman ruler Osman I was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in the 1320s.[7] Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to be a sovereign, it can be considered that the Ottomans became independent of the Mongol Khans.[8]
Early relations
In the 12th century, the
The
Fall of Erzurum
History of Turkey |
---|
Timeline |
Turkey portal |
Baiju's army attacked
Campaign in Erzurum
Baiju advanced to Erzurum with a contingent of Georgian and Armenian warriors under
Köse Dağ
The Seljuk Sultan made an alliance with all nations surrounding him. The King of Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia promised him to send a contingent; however, it is not certain they really engaged in his struggle with the Mongols. Kaykhusraw received the military support from the Empire of Trebizond and the Ayyubid Sultan at Aleppo, and the Frankish mercenaries participated in the campaign.[11] Because of little reliable information, it is difficult to measure the opposing troops. But the Seljuk force was larger than the Mongols.
Kaykhusraw advanced from Konya some 320 kilometres (200 miles) up to Köse Dağ. The Mongolian army entered the area in June 1243 and awaited the march of the Seljuks and their allies. The early stage of the battle was indecisive. The Sultan's forces suffered the greater casualties and he decided to withdraw at night. Pursuing him, Baiju received the submission of Arzenjan (Erzincan), Divriği and Sivas en route.
The Mongols set up their camp near
Peace of Sivas
Kaykhusraw sent a delegation headed by his vizier to Baiju, realizing the further resistance would only produce a great disaster. Baiju offered terms based on resubmission and the Sultan was undertaken to pay a tribute tax every year in gold, silk, camel and sheep of uncertain quantities. However, the Turkish realm that had been taken by the military force remained occupied by the Mongols. Almost half of the Sultanate of Rum became an occupied country. The Empire of Trebizond became subject to the Mongolian Qaghan, fearing of the potential punitive expedition because they involved in the battle of Köse Dağ.[13]
In the Empire of Nicaea John III Doukas Vatatzes prepared for the coming Mongol threat. However, Vatatzes had sent envoys to the Qaghans Güyük and Möngke but was playing for time. The Mongol Empire did not cause any harm to his plan to recapture Constantinople from the hands of the Latins who also sent their envoy to the Mongols. Vatatzes' successors, the Palaiologan emperors of the restored Byzantine Empire, made an alliance with the Mongols, giving their princesses in marriage to the Mongol khans.
References
- ^ Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach Medieval Islamic Civilization: A–K, index, p. 442
- ^ H. M. Balyuzi Muḥammad and the course of Islám, p. 342
- ^ John Freely Storm on Horseback: The Seljuk Warriors of Turkey, p. 83
- ^ Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Gary Leiser The origins of the Ottoman empire, p. 33
- ^ Peter Partner God of battles: holy wars of Christianity and Islam, p. 122
- ^ Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire, p. 13
- ^ Artuk-Osmanli Beyliginin Kurucusu, 27f
- ^ Pamuk A Monetary history, pp. 30–31
- ^ D. S. Benson, The Mongol Campaigns in Asia, p. 177
- ^ C. P. Atwood, Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 555
- ^ Claude Cahen, Pre-Ottoman Turkey: a general survey of the material and spiritual culture and history, trans. J. Jones-Williams, (New York: Taplinger, 1968) p. 137.
- ^ Shepherd, William R. Historical Atlas, 1911.
- ^ Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West, p. 103