Mongol invasions of India

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Mongol invasions of India
Part of the Mongol invasions and conquests
Date24 November 1221-1327
Location
Modern-day Pakistan; Multan; Beas River; Punjab; Kili; Delhi; Amroha; Ravi River
Result

Delhi Sultanate's victory

  • Mongol forces expelled from India
Belligerents

Mongol Empire

Delhi Sultanate

Commanders and leaders
Hulagu Khan[1]
Targhi
Saldi
Zulju
Tarmashirin
 Ghiyas ud din Balban
Jalal-ud-Din Khalji
Alauddin Khalji
Zafar Khan†
Malik Kafur
Ulugh Khan
Nusrat Khan Jalesari
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq

The

Qaraunas of Mongol origin. The Mongols occupied parts of the subcontinent for decades. As the Mongols progressed into the Indian hinterland and reached the outskirts of Delhi, the Delhi Sultanate led a campaign against them in which the Mongol army suffered serious defeats.[2]

Delhi Sultanate officials viewed war with the Mongols as one of the Sultan's primary duties. While Sultanate chroniclers described the conflicts between the pagan Mongols and a monolithic Muslim community in binary terms, the Delhi Sultanate being an island of Islamic civilization surrounded by heathens to its north and south, it ignored the fact that a large number of Sultanate elites and monarchs were of Turk/Mongol ethnicity or had previously served in their armed contingents.[3]

Background

After pursuing

Lahore region and attacked outlying province Multan, and even sacked the outskirts of Lahore. Jalal ad-Din regrouped, forming a small army from survivors of the battle and sought an alliance, or even an asylum, with the Sultan of Delhi Sultanate, Iltutmish, but was turned down.[4]

While fighting against the local governor of

Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty.[5]

Mongol conquest of Kashmir

Battle of Indus

Some time after 1235 another Mongol force invaded

Indus valley and besieged Lahore
. However, on December 30, 1241, the Mongols under Munggetu butchered the town before withdrawing from the Delhi Sultanate. At the same time the Great Khan Ögedei died (1241).

The Kashmiris revolted in 1254–1255, and Möngke Khan, who became Great Khan in 1251, appointed his generals, Sali and Takudar, to replace the court and appointed the Buddhist master, Otochi, as darugachi of Kashmir. However, the Kashmiri king[who?] killed Otochi at Srinagar. Sali invaded Kashmir, killing the king, and put down the rebellion, after which the country remained subject to the Mongol Empire for many years.[7]

Intrusion into Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi prince Jalal al-Din Masud, traveled to the Mongol capital at

Hulagu Khan, Möngke's brother, and sought Mongol protection from his overlord in Delhi. Hulagu led a strong force under Sali Bahadur into Sindh. In the winter of 1257 - beginning of 1258, Sali Noyan entered Sind in strength and dismantled the fortifications of Multan; his forces may also have infested the island fortress of Bukkur
on the Indus.

But Hulagu refused to sanction a grand invasion of the Delhi Sultanate and a few years later diplomatic correspondence between the two rulers confirmed the growing desire for peace.

Ghiyas ud din Balban's (reigned: 1266–1287) one absorbing preoccupation was the danger of a Mongol invasion. For this cause he organized and disciplined his army to the highest point of efficiency; for this he made away with disaffected or jealous chiefs, and steadily refused to entrust authority to Hindus; for this he stayed near his capital and would not be tempted into distant campaigns.[8]

Large-scale Mongol invasions of India ceased and the Delhi Sultans used the respite to recover the frontier towns like Multan, Uch, and Lahore, and to punish the local Ranas and Rais who had joined hands with either the Khwarazim or the Mongol invaders.

Chagatai Khanate-Dehlavi Wars

After civil war broke out in the Mongol Empire in the 1260s, the Chagatai Khanate controlled Central Asia and its leader since the 1280s was Duwa Khan who was second in command of Kaidu Khan. Duwa was active in Afghanistan, and attempted to extend Mongol rule into India.

The Muslim

Western Asia.[10] The number of 150,000 Mongol invaders during 1292 which opposed by Jalaluddin were also rceorded in Wolseley Haig work of The Cambridge History of India.[11] A count of the Mongol commanders named in the sources as participating in the various invasions might give a better indication of the numbers involved, as these commanders probably led tumens, units nominally of 10,000 men.[12] These invasions were led by either various descendants of Genghis Khan or by Mongol divisional commanders; the size of such armies was always between 10,000 and 30,000 cavalry although the chroniclers of Delhi exaggerated the number to 100,000-200,000 cavalry.[13] The 4,000 Mongol captives of the advance guard converted to Islam and came to live in Delhi as "new Muslims". The suburb they lived in was appropriately named Mughalpura.[14][15] Chagatai tumens were beaten by the Delhi Sultanate several times in 1296–1297.[16]

Unlike the previous invasions, the invasions during the reign of Jalaluddin's successor

Sivistan.[18] These Mongols were defeated by Zafar Khan: a number of them were arrested and brought to Delhi as captives.[19] At this time, the main branch of Alauddin's army, led by Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan was busy raiding Gujarat. When this army was returning from Gujarat to Delhi, some of its Mongol soldiers staged a mutiny over payment of khums (one-fifth of the share of loot).[20] The mutiny was crushed, and the mutineers families in Delhi were severely punished.[21]

In late 1299, Duwa dispatched his son

another invasion around August 1303.[26] Alauddin managed to reach Delhi before the invaders, but did not have enough time to prepare for a strong defence. He took shelter in a heavily guarded camp at the under-construction Siri Fort. The Mongols ransacked Delhi and its neighbourhoods, but ultimately retreated after being unable to breach Siri.[27] This close encounter with the Mongols prompted Alauddin to strengthen the forts and the military presence along their routes to India.[28] He also implemented a series of economic reforms to ensure sufficient revenue inflows for maintaining a strong army.[29]

Shortly afterward, Duwa Khan sought to end the ongoing conflict with the Yuan Khagan

Himalayan foothills. Alauddin's 30,000-strong cavalry, led by Malik Nayak, defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Amroha.[30][31] A large number of Mongols were taken captive and killed.[32] In 1306, another Mongol army sent by Duwa advanced up to the Ravi River, ransacking the territories along the way. This army included three contingents, led by Kopek, Iqbalmand, and Tai-Bu. Alauddin's forces, led by Malik Kafur, decisively defeated the invaders.[33] In 1307 the Mongol Khan, Duwa, died and in the dispute over his succession this spate of Mongol raids into India already ended. Taking advantage of this situation, Alauddin's general Malik Tughluq regularly raided the Mongol territories located in present-day Afghanistan.[34][35]

Late Mongol invasions

In 1320 the

Divasar district.[citation needed
]

The next major Mongol invasion took place after the Khaljis had been replaced by the

Buddhist who later converted to Islam. Religious tensions in the Chagatai Khanate were a divisive factor among the Mongols.[citation needed
]

No more large-scale invasions or raids into India were launched after Tamashirin's siege of Delhi. However, small groups of Mongol adventurers hired out their swords to the many local powers in the northwest. Amir Qazaghan raided northern India with his Qara'unas. He also sent several thousand troops to aid the Delhi Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq in suppressing the rebellion in his country in 1350.[citation needed]

Timur and Babur

Main article: Timurid conquests and invasions § South Asia
Timur
Sultan of Delhi
, Nasir Al-Din Mahmud Tughluq, in the winter of 1397–1398
Turco-Mongol descendant of Timur
, who later invaded India in the 16th century.

The Delhi sultans had developed cordial relations with the Yuan dynasty in Mongolia and China and the Ilkhanate in Persia and the Middle East. Around 1338, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate appointed Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta an ambassador to the Yuan court under Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong). The gifts he was to take included 200 slaves.

The Chagatai Khanate had split up by this time and an ambitious Mongol Turk chieftain named Timur had brought Central Asia and the regions beyond under his control. He launched an invasion of the Dehli Sultanate and sacked the capital. Timur's empire broke up and his descendants failed to hold on to Central Asia, which split up into numerous principalities.

One of his descendant, Babur, launched his own invasion of the subcontinent and established the Mughal Empire.[38]

When Babur occupied Kabul and began invading the Indian subcontinent, he was called a Mughal like all the earlier invaders from the Chagatai Khanate. Even the invasion of Timur had been considered a Mongol invasion since the Mongols had ruled over Central Asia for so long and had given their name to its people.

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ A. B. M. Habibullah 1992, p. 317.
  2. ^ Herbert M. J. Loewe. The Mongols.
  3. ISSN 0026-749X
    .
  4. ^ Gilmour, James (n.d.). Among the Mongols. Boston University School of Theology. London, Religious Tract Society.
  5. ^ Chormaqan Noyan: The First Mongol Military Governor in the Middle East by Timothy May
  6. ^ Thomas T. Allsen-Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, p.84
  7. ^ André Wink-Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, p.208
  8. ISBN 9789353601669
    .
  9. ^ Rashid ad-Din - The history of World
  10. ^ John Masson Smith, Jr. Mongol Armies and Indian Campaigns.
  11. ^ Himayatullah Yaqubi (2014). "M ONGOL -AFGHAN CONFLICT DURING THE DELHI S ULTANS" (PDF). Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan. 51 (1). Research Society of Pakistan: 245. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
  12. ^ John Masson Smith, Jr. Mongol Armies and Indian Campaigns.
  13. ^ John Masson Smith, Jr. Mongol Armies and Indian Campaigns and J.A. Boyle, The Mongol Commanders in Afghanistan and India.
  14. ^ Dr. A. Zahoor (21 May 2002). "Muslims in the Indian Subcontinent" (PDF). pp. 58–59. Retrieved 2015-08-20.
  15. ^ J.A. Boyle, "The Mongol Commanders in Afghanistan and India According to the Tabaqat-I-Nasiri of Juzjani," Islamic Studies, II (1963); reprinted in idem, The Mongol World Empire (London: Variorum, 1977), see ch. IX, p. 239
  16. ^ Although Muslim historians claimed Mongols were outnumbered and their army ranged from 100,000 to 200,000, their force was not enough to cow down Delhi mamluks in reality. See John Masson Smith, Jr. Mongol Armies and Indian Campaigns.
  17. ^ a b Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 332.
  18. ^ Peter Jackson 2003, pp. 219–220.
  19. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 336.
  20. ^ Kishori Saran Lal 1950, p. 87.
  21. ^ Kishori Saran Lal 1950, p. 88.
  22. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 338.
  23. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 340.
  24. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 341.
  25. ^ Peter Jackson 2003, pp. 221–222.
  26. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 368.
  27. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, pp. 369–370.
  28. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 372.
  29. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 373.
  30. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, pp. 392–393.
  31. ^ Peter Jackson 2003, pp. 227–228.
  32. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 393.
  33. ^ Kishori Saran Lal 1950, pp. 171–172.
  34. ^ Kishori Saran Lal 1950, p. 175.
  35. ^ Peter Jackson 2003, p. 229.
  36. ^ Mohibbul Hasan-Kashmir Under the Sultans, p.36
  37. ^ The Chaghadaids and Islam: the conversion of Tarmashirin Khan (1331-34). The Journal of the American Oriental Society, October 1, 2002. Biran
  38. ^ "BĀBOR, ẒAHĪR-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-01-30.

Sources

External links
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