Moon

Analysis of the findings of the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) revealed in August 2018 for the first time "definitive evidence" for water-ice on the lunar surface.[161]^[162] The data revealed the distinct reflective signatures of water-ice, as opposed to dust and other reflective substances.^[163] The ice deposits were found on the North and South poles, although it is more abundant in the South, where water is trapped in permanently shadowed craters and crevices, allowing it to persist as ice on the surface since they are shielded from the sun.^[161][163]

In October 2020, astronomers reported detecting molecular water on the sunlit surface of the Moon by several independent spacecraft, including the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA).^{[164][165][166][167]}

Earth–Moon system

Orbit

The Earth and the Moon form the Earth-Moon

The Moon's orbit is slightly elliptical, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.055.^[1] The

Tidal effects

The gravitational attraction that Earth and the Moon (as well as the Sun) exert on each other manifests in a slightly greater attraction on the sides closest to each other, resulting in

The tides are two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side facing the Moon and the other on the side opposite. As the Earth rotates on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place "under" the Moon, while another such tide is opposite. As a result, there are two high tides, and two low tides in about 24 hours.[176] Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the Earth's rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to the Moon's time to orbit the Earth.

If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide of only one meter, and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified by other effects:

• the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors
• the inertia of water's movement
• ocean basins that grow shallower near land
• the sloshing of water between different ocean basins^[177]

As a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is a product of observations that are explained, incidentally, by theory.

System evolution

Delays in the tidal peaks of both ocean and solid-body tides cause torque in opposition to the Earth's rotation. This "drains" angular momentum and rotational kinetic energy from Earth's rotation, slowing the Earth's rotation.^[176][173] That angular momentum, lost from the Earth, is transferred to the Moon in a process known as tidal acceleration, which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit while lowering orbital speed around the Earth.

Thus the distance between Earth and Moon is increasing, and the Earth's rotation is slowing in reaction.

This tidal drag makes the rotation of the Earth and the orbital period of the Moon very slowly match. This matching first results in tidally locking the lighter body of the orbital system, as is already the case with the Moon. Theoretically, in 50 billion years,^[184] the Earth's rotation will have slowed to the point of matching the Moon's orbital period, causing the Earth to always present the same side to the Moon. However, the Sun will become a red giant, most likely engulfing the Earth-Moon system long before then.^[185][186]

If the Earth-Moon system isn't engulfed by the enlarged Sun, the drag from the solar atmosphere can cause the orbit of the Moon to decay. Once the orbit of the Moon closes to a distance of 18,470 km (11,480 mi), it will cross Earth's Roche limit, meaning that tidal interaction with Earth would break apart the Moon, turning it into a ring system. Most of the orbiting rings will begin to decay, and the debris will impact Earth. Hence, even if the Sun does not swallow up Earth, the planet may be left moonless.^[187]

Position and appearance

The Moon's highest

The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around 356,400 km (221,500 mi) (perigee) to 406,700 km (252,700 mi) (apogee), making the Moon's distance and apparent size fluctuate up to 14%.^[191][192] On average the Moon's angular diameter is about 0.52°, roughly the same apparent size as the Sun (see § Eclipses). In addition, a purely psychological effect, known as the Moon illusion, makes the Moon appear larger when close to the horizon.^[193]

Despite the Moon's tidal locking, the effect of libration makes about 59% of the Moon's surface visible from Earth over the course of one month.^[170][70]

Rotation

The

The Moon originally rotated at a faster rate, but early in its history its rotation slowed and became tidally locked in this orientation as a result of frictional effects associated with tidal deformations caused by Earth.^[195] With time, the energy of rotation of the Moon on its axis was dissipated as heat, until there was no rotation of the Moon relative to Earth. In 2016, planetary scientists using data collected on the 1998-99 NASA Lunar Prospector mission, found two hydrogen-rich areas (most likely former water ice) on opposite sides of the Moon. It is speculated that these patches were the poles of the Moon billions of years ago before it was tidally locked to Earth.^[196]

Illumination and phases

Half of the Moon's surface is always illuminated by the Sun (except during a lunar eclipse). Earth also reflects light onto the Moon, observable at times as Earthlight when it is reflected back to Earth from areas of the near side of the Moon that are not illuminated by the Sun.

Since the Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is 1.5427°, in every

With the different positions of the Moon, different areas of it are illuminated by the Sun. This illumination of different lunar areas, as viewed from Earth, produces the different

${\displaystyle (1-\cos e)/2=\sin ^{2}(e/2)}$

${\displaystyle e}$

Brightness and apparent size of the Moon changes also due to its elliptic

There has been historical controversy over whether observed features on the Moon's surface change over time. Today, many of these claims are thought to be illusory, resulting from observation under different lighting conditions, poor astronomical seeing, or inadequate drawings. However, outgassing does occasionally occur and could be responsible for a minor percentage of the reported lunar transient phenomena. Recently, it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km (1.9 mi) diameter region of the lunar surface was modified by a gas release event about a million years ago.^[199][200]

Albedo and color

The Moon has an exceptionally low albedo, giving it a reflectance that is slightly brighter than that of worn asphalt. Despite this, it is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun.^[70][j] This is due partly to the brightness enhancement of the opposition surge; the Moon at quarter phase is only one-tenth as bright, rather than half as bright, as at full moon.^[201] Additionally, color constancy in the visual system recalibrates the relations between the colors of an object and its surroundings, and because the surrounding sky is comparatively dark, the sunlit Moon is perceived as a bright object. The edges of the full moon seem as bright as the center, without limb darkening, because of the reflective properties of lunar soil, which retroreflects light more towards the Sun than in other directions. The Moon's color depends on the light the Moon reflects, which in turn depends on the Moon's surface and its features, having for example large darker regions. In general the lunar surface reflects a brown-tinged gray light.^[202]

At times, the Moon can appear red or blue. It may appear red during a

The Moon may appear blue depending on the presence of certain particles in the air,^[202] such as volcanic particles,^[203] in which case it can be called a blue moon.

Because the words "red moon" and "blue moon" can also be used to refer to specific full moons of the year, they do not always refer to the presence of red or blue moonlight.

Eclipses

A solar eclipse causes the Sun to be covered, revealing the white corona.

The Moon, tinted reddish, during a lunar eclipse

Eclipses only occur when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are all in a straight line (termed "

Because the Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined by about 5.145° (5° 9') to the orbit of Earth around the Sun, eclipses do not occur at every full and new moon. For an eclipse to occur, the Moon must be near the intersection of the two orbital planes.^[206] The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the Sun by the Moon, and of the Moon by Earth, is described by the saros, which has a period of approximately 18 years.^[207]

Because the Moon continuously blocks the view of a half-degree-wide circular area of the sky,^[l][208] the related phenomenon of occultation occurs when a bright star or planet passes behind the Moon and is occulted: hidden from view. In this way, a solar eclipse is an occultation of the Sun. Because the Moon is comparatively close to Earth, occultations of individual stars are not visible everywhere on the planet, nor at the same time. Because of the precession of the lunar orbit, each year different stars are occulted.^[209]

History of exploration and human presence

It is believed by some that 20–30,000 year old

The

In Aristotle's (384–322 BC) description of the universe, the Moon marked the boundary between the spheres of the mutable elements (earth, water, air and fire), and the imperishable stars of aether, an influential philosophy that would dominate for centuries.^[217] Archimedes (287–212 BC) designed a planetarium that could calculate the motions of the Moon and other objects in the Solar System.^[218] In the 2nd century BC, Seleucus of Seleucia correctly theorized that tides were due to the attraction of the Moon, and that their height depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun.^[219] In the same century, Aristarchus computed the size and distance of the Moon from Earth, obtaining a value of about twenty times the radius of Earth for the distance.

Although the Chinese of the

During the Middle Ages, before the invention of the telescope, the Moon was increasingly recognised as a sphere, though many believed that it was "perfectly smooth".^[224]

Telescopic exploration (1609–1959)

In 1609, Galileo Galilei used an early telescope to make drawings of the Moon for his book Sidereus Nuncius, and deduced that it was not smooth but had mountains and craters. Thomas Harriot had made, but not published such drawings a few months earlier.

Telescopic mapping of the Moon followed: later in the 17th century, the efforts of

After

After the first spaceflight of Sputnik 1 in 1957 during International Geophysical Year the spacecraft of the Soviet Union's Luna program were the first to accomplish a number of goals. Following three unnamed failed missions in 1958,^[227] the first human-made object Luna 1 escaped Earth's gravity and passed near the Moon in 1959. Later that year the first human-made object Luna 2 reached the Moon's surface by intentionally impacting. By the end of the year Luna 3 reached as the first human-made object the normally occluded far side of the Moon, taking the first photographs of it. The first spacecraft to perform a successful lunar soft landing was Luna 9 and the first vehicle to orbit the Moon was Luna 10, both in 1966.^[70]

Following President

Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the Moon as the commander of the American mission Apollo 11 by first setting foot on the Moon at 02:56 UTC on July 21, 1969.^[229] An estimated 500 million people worldwide watched the transmission by the Apollo TV camera, the largest television audience for a live broadcast at that time.^[230][231] The Apollo missions 11 to 17 (except Apollo 13, which aborted its planned lunar landing) removed 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar rock and soil in 2,196 separate samples.^[232]

Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all the Apollo landings. Long-lived

The Soviet Union continued sending robotic missions to the Moon until 1976, deploying in 1970 with

A near lunar quietude of fourteen years followed the

The until 1979 negotiated

Renewed exploration (1990–present)

In 1990 Hiten-Hagoromo,^[237] the first dedicated lunar mission since 1976, reached the Moon. Sent by Japan, it became the first mission that was not a Soviet Union or U.S. mission to the Moon.

In 1994, the U.S. dedicated a mission to fly a spacecraft (

The next years saw a row of first missions to the Moon by a new group of states actively exploring the Moon. Between 2004 and 2006 the first spacecraft by the European Space Agency (ESA) (SMART-1) reached the Moon, recording the first detailed survey of chemical elements on the lunar surface.^[240] The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program reached the Moon for the first time with the orbiter Chang'e 1 (2007–2009),^[241] obtaining a full image map of the Moon.

India reached, orbited and impacted the Moon in 2008 for the first time with its Chandrayaan-1 and Moon Impact Probe, becoming the fifth and sixth state to do so, creating a high-resolution chemical, mineralogical and photo-geological map of the lunar surface, and confirming the presence of water molecules in lunar soil.^[242]

The U.S. launched the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and the

altimetry

and high-resolution imagery.

China continued its lunar program in 2010 with

soft landing since Luna 24

in 1976, making China the third country to achieve this.

In 2014 the first privately funded probe, the Manfred Memorial Moon Mission, reached the Moon.

Another Chinese rover mission, Chang'e 4, achieved the first landing on the Moon's far side in early 2019.^[244]

Also in 2019, India successfully sent its second probe, Chandrayaan-2 to the Moon.

In 2020, China carried out its first robotic

sample return mission (Chang'e 5), bringing back 1,731 grams of lunar material to Earth.^[245]

The U.S.

Moon Village concept.^{[248][249][250]}

2023 and 2024 India and Japan became the fourth and fifth country to soft land a spacecraft on the Moon, following the Soviet Union and United States in the 1960s, and China in the 2010s.^[251]The IM-1 lander became the first commercially built lander to land on the Moon in 2024.^[252]

Future

See also:

List of proposed missions to the Moon

Beside the progressing

lunar base with their international partners, though the US and its partners will first establish an orbital Lunar Gateway station in the 2020s, from which Artemis missions will land the Human Landing System

to set up temporary surface camps.

Human presence

See also:

Apollo Program, a series of crewed exploration missions carried out from 1969 to 1972. Lunar orbit has seen uninterrupted presence of orbiters since 2006, performing mainly lunar observation

and providing relayed communication for robotic missions on the lunar surface.

Lunar orbits and

cislunar space as well as on the Moon's surface. Missions at the far side of the Moon or the lunar north and south polar regions need spacecraft with special orbits, such as the Queqiao and Queqiao-2 relay satellite or the planned first extraterrestrial space station, the Lunar Gateway.^[256][257]

Human impact

See also: Space debris, Space sustainability, List of artificial objects on the Moon, Space art § Art in space, Moonbase, Lunar resources § Mining, Tourism on the Moon, and Space archaeology

While the Moon has the lowest planetary protection target-categorization, its degradation as a pristine body and scientific place has been discussed.^[259] If there is astronomy performed from the Moon, it will need to be free from any physical and radio pollution. While the Moon has no significant atmosphere, traffic and impacts on the Moon causes clouds of dust that can spread far and possibly contaminate the original state of the Moon and its special scientific content.^[260] Scholar Alice Gorman asserts that, although the Moon is inhospitable, it is not dead, and that sustainable human activity would require treating the Moon's ecology as a co-participant.^[261]

The so-called "Tardigrade affair" of the 2019 crashed Beresheet lander and its carrying of tardigrades has been discussed as an example for lacking measures and lacking international regulation for planetary protection.^[262]

Space debris beyond Earth around the Moon has been considered as a future challenge with increasing numbers of missions to the Moon, particularly as a danger for such missions.^[263][264] As such lunar waste management has been raised as an issue which future lunar missions, particularly on the surface, need to tackle.^[265][266]

Human remains have been transported to the Moon, including by private companies such as

Eugene Shoemaker to the Moon in 1998.^[267][268]

Beside the remains of human activity on the Moon, there have been some intended permanent installations like the Moon Museum art piece, Apollo 11 goodwill messages, six lunar plaques, the Fallen Astronaut memorial, and other artifacts.^[258]

Longterm missions continuing to be active are some orbiters such as the 2009-launched Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter surveilling the Moon for future missions, as well as some Landers such as the 2013-launched Chang'e 3 with its Lunar Ultraviolet Telescope still operational.^[269] Five retroreflectors have been installed on the Moon since the 1970s and since used for accurate measurements of the physical

laser ranging to the Moon

.

There are several missions by different agencies and companies planned to establish a longterm human presence on the Moon, with the Lunar Gateway as the currently most advanced project as part of the Artemis program.

Astronomy from the Moon

Further information: Extraterrestrial sky § The Moon

The Moon is recognized as an excellent site for telescopes.^[270] It is relatively nearby; certain craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold and especially useful for infrared telescopes; and radio telescopes on the far side would be shielded from the radio chatter of Earth.^[271] The lunar soil, although it poses a problem for any moving parts of telescopes, can be mixed with carbon nanotubes and epoxies and employed in the construction of mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter.^[272] A lunar zenith telescope can be made cheaply with an ionic liquid.^[273]

In April 1972, the Apollo 16 mission recorded various astronomical photos and spectra in ultraviolet with the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph.^[274]

The Moon has been also a site of

apparent size of 1° 48′ to 2°,^[275]

three to four times the size of the Moon or Sun in Earth's sky, or about the apparent width of two little fingers at an arm's length away.

Living on the Moon

Main article: Lunar habitation

lunar habitat and base, the Lunar Module Eagle of Tranquility Base, during Apollo 11 (1969), the first crewed Moon landing

The only instances of

cause health issues.^[277]

In 2019, at least one plant seed sprouted in an experiment on the

Chang'e 4 lander. It was carried from Earth along with other small life in its Lunar Micro Ecosystem.^[278]

Legal status

See also: Space law, Politics of outer space, Space advocacy, and Colonization of the Moon

Although

Luna landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon, and U.S. flags were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts, no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface.^[279] Likewise no private ownership of parts of the Moon, or as a whole, is considered credible.^{[280][281][282]}

The 1967

weapons of mass destruction.^[283] A majority of countries are parties of this treaty.^[284]

The 1979 Moon Agreement was created to elaborate, and restrict the exploitation of the Moon's resources by any single nation, leaving it to a yet unspecified international regulatory regime.^[285] As of January 2020, it has been signed and ratified by 18 nations,^[286] none of which have human spaceflight capabilities.

Since 2020, countries have joined the U.S. in their Artemis Accords, which are challenging the treaty. The U.S. has furthermore emphasized in a presidential executive order ("Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources.") that "the United States does not view outer space as a 'global commons'" and calls the Moon Agreement "a failed attempt at constraining free enterprise."^[287][288]

With Australia signing and ratifying both the Moon Treaty in 1986 as well as the Artemis Accords in 2020, there has been a discussion if they can be harmonized.^[249] In this light an Implementation Agreement for the Moon Treaty has been advocated for, as a way to compensate for the shortcomings of the Moon Treaty and to harmonize it with other laws and agreements such as the Artemis Accords, allowing it to be more widely accepted.^[248][250]

In the face of such increasing commercial and national interest, particularly prospecting territories, U.S. lawmakers have introduced in late 2020 specific regulation for the conservation of historic landing sites^[289] and interest groups have argued for making such sites World Heritage Sites^[290] and zones of scientific value protected zones, all of which add to the legal availability and territorialization of the Moon.^[262]

In 2021, the Declaration of the Rights of the Moon

Rights of Nature movement and the concept of legal personality for non-human entities in space.^[292][293]

Coordination

In light of future development on the Moon some international and multi-

space agency

organizations have been created:

• International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG)
• Moon Village Association (MVA)
• International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG)

For example, to safeguard international and commercial lunar activity, a shared

Lunar time

has been suggested to be developed.

In culture and life

Timekeeping

Further information: Lunar calendar, Lunisolar calendar, and Metonic cycle

waxing and waning cycle, and used it to keep record of time. Tally sticks, notched bones dating as far back as 20–30,000 years ago, are believed by some to mark the phases of the Moon.^{[210][296][297]} The counting of the days between the Moon's phases gave eventually rise to generalized time periods of lunar cycles as months, and possibly of its phases as weeks.^[298]

The words for the month in a range of different languages carry this relation between the period of the month and the Moon etymologically. The English month as well as moon, and its cognates in other Indo-European languages (e.g. the

Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root of moon, *méh₁nōt, derived from the PIE verbal root *meh₁-, "to measure", "indicat[ing] a functional conception of the Moon, i.e. marker of the month" (cf. the English words measure and menstrual).^{[303][304][305]} To give another example from a different language family, the Chinese language uses the same word (月) for moon as well as for month, which furthermore can be found in the symbols for the word week (星期

).

This lunar timekeeping gave rise to the historically dominant, but varied, lunisolar calendars. The 7th-century Islamic calendar is an example of a purely lunar calendar, where months are traditionally determined by the visual sighting of the hilal, or earliest crescent moon, over the horizon.^[306]

Of particular significance has been the occasion of

Chinese lunar calendar, its second most important celebration after the Chinese lunisolar Lunar New Year.^[307]

Furthermore, association of time with the Moon can also be found in religion, such as the ancient Egyptian temporal and lunar deity Khonsu.

Cultural representation

Further information: Cultural astronomy, Archaeoastronomy, Lunar deity, Selene, Luna (goddess), Crescent, and Man in the Moon

See also: Nocturne (painting) and Moon magic

Recurring lunar aspects of lunar deities

The crescent of Nanna/Sîn, c. 2100 BC

Crescent headgear, chariot and velificatio of Luna, 2nd–5th century

A Moon rabbit of the Mayan moon goddess, 6th–9th century

Since prehistoric times humans have depicted and later described their perception of the Moon and its importance for them and their

in astrology

.

Crescent

For the representation of the Moon, especially its

lunar phases, the crescent (🌙) has been a recurring symbol in a range of cultures. In writing systems such as Chinese the crescent has developed into the symbol 月, the word for Moon, and in ancient Egyptian it was the symbol 𓇹, meaning Moon and spelled like the ancient Egyptian lunar deity Iah,^[309] which the other ancient Egyptian lunar deities Khonsu and Thoth

were associated with.

Iconographically the crescent was used in

Luna of ancient Rome, depicted as a horned deity, featuring crescent shaped headgears or crowns.^[312][313]

The particular arrangement of the crescent with a star known as the

Marian veneration on a crescent and adorned with stars. Since then the heraldric use of the star and crescent proliferated, Byzantium's symbolism possibly influencing the development of the Ottoman flag, specifically the combination of the Turkish crescent with a star,^[314] and becoming a popular symbol for Islam (as the hilal of the Islamic calendar) and for a range of nations.^[315]

Other association

The features of the Moon, the contrasting brighter highlands and darker maria, have been seen by different cultures

Indigenous American mythologies the aspect of the Mayan Moon goddess, from which possibly Awilix is derived, or of Metztli/Tēcciztēcatl).^[308]

Occasionally some lunar deities have been also depicted driving a chariot across the sky, such as the Hindu Chandra/Soma, the Greek Artemis, which is associated with Selene, or Luna, Selene's ancient Roman equivalent.

Colour and material wise the Moon has been associated in Western alchemy with silver, while gold is associated with the Sun.^[316]

Through a miracle, the so-called

Arabic: انشقاق القمر) in Islam, association with the Moon applies also to Muhammad.^[317]

Modern culture representation

See also: Moon in science fiction and List of appearances of the Moon in fiction

science-fiction film set in space, A Trip to the Moon

(1902), inspired by a history of literature about going to the Moon.

The perception of the Moon in modern times has been informed by

modern astronomy and later by spaceflight enabled actual human activity at the Moon, particularly the culturally impactful lunar landings. These new insights inspired cultural references, connecting romantic reflections about the Moon^[318] and speculative fiction such as science-fiction dealing with the Moon.^[319][320]

Contemporarily the Moon has been seen as a place for

economic expansion into space, with missions prospecting for lunar resources. This has been accompanied with renewed public and critical reflection on humanity's cultural and legal relation to the celestial body, especially regarding colonialism,^[262] as in the 1970 poem "Whitey on the Moon". In this light the Moon's nature has been invoked,^[291] particularly for lunar conservation^[264] and as a common.^{[321][285][293]}

In 2021 20 July, the date of the first crewed moon landing, became the annual International Moon Day.^[322]

Lunar effect

Main article: Lunar effect

The lunar effect is a purported unproven correlation between specific stages of the roughly 29.5-day lunar cycle and behavior and physiological changes in living beings on Earth, including humans. The Moon has long been associated with insanity and irrationality; the words lunacy and lunatic are derived from the Latin name for the Moon, Luna. Philosophers Aristotle and Pliny the Elder argued that the full moon induced insanity in susceptible individuals, believing that the brain, which is mostly water, must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides, but the Moon's gravity is too slight to affect any single person.^[323] Even today, people who believe in a lunar effect claim that admissions to psychiatric hospitals, traffic accidents, homicides or suicides increase during a full moon, but dozens of studies invalidate these claims.^{[323][324][325][326][327]}

See also

• List of natural satellites
• Selenography (geography of the Moon)
• Coordinated Lunar Time

Explanatory notes

1. ^ Between 18.29° and 28.58° to Earth's equator^[1]
2. Other moons of Earth
   .
3. earthshine onto such a new moon. The brightness of the earthshine is [ Earth albedo × (Earth radius / Radius of Moon's orbit
   )² ] relative to the direct solar illumination that occurs for a full moon. (Earth albedo = 0.367; Earth radius = (polar radius × equatorial radius)^½ = 6 367 km.)
4. arcseconds
   . The same fact sheet gives extreme Earth–Moon distances of 407 000 km and 357 000 km. For the maximum angular size, the minimum distance has to be corrected for Earth's equatorial radius of 6 378 km, giving 350 600 km.
5. ^ Lucey et al. (2006) give 10⁷ particles cm⁻³ by day and 10⁵ particles cm⁻³ by night. Along with equatorial surface temperatures of 390 K by day and 100 K by night, the ideal gas law yields the pressures given in the infobox (rounded to the nearest order of magnitude): 10⁻⁷ Pa by day and 10⁻¹⁰ Pa by night.
6. ^ With 27% the diameter and 60% the density of Earth, the Moon has 1.23% of the mass of Earth. The moon Charon is larger relative to its primary Pluto, but Earth and the Moon are different since Pluto is considered a dwarf planet and not a planet, unlike Earth.
7. ^ There is no strong correlation between the sizes of planets and the sizes of their satellites. Larger planets tend to have more satellites, both large and small, than smaller planets.
8. ^ More accurately, the Moon's mean sidereal period (fixed star to fixed star) is 27.321661 days (27 d 07 h 43 min 11.5 s), and its mean tropical orbital period (from equinox to equinox) is 27.321582 days (27 d 07 h 43 min 04.7 s) (Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris, 1961, at p.107).
9. ^ More accurately, the Moon's mean synodic period (between mean solar conjunctions) is 29.530589 days (29 d 12 h 44 min 02.9 s) (Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris, 1961, at p.107).
10. ^ The Sun's apparent magnitude is −26.7, while the full moon's apparent magnitude is −12.7.
11. ^ See graph in Sun#Life phases. At present, the diameter of the Sun is increasing at a rate of about five percent per billion years. This is very similar to the rate at which the apparent angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing as it recedes from Earth.
12. ^ On average, the Moon covers an area of 0.21078 square degrees on the night sky.

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Further reading

• Angier, Natalie (September 7, 2014). "The Moon Comes Around Again". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 8, 2014. Retrieved September 8, 2014.
• "The Moon". Discovery 2008. BBC World Service. Archived from the original on March 11, 2011. Retrieved May 9, 2021.
• Bussey, B.;
  ISBN 978-0-521-81528-4
  .
• Cain, Fraser. "Where does the Moon Come From?". Universe Today. Archived from the original on May 10, 2021. Retrieved May 9, 2021. (podcast and transcript)
• Jolliff, B. (2006). Wieczorek, M.; Shearer, C.; Neal, C. (eds.). "New views of the Moon".
  ISBN 978-0-939950-72-0. Archived
  from the original on June 27, 2007. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
• Jones, E. M. (2006). "Apollo Lunar Surface Journal". NASA. Archived from the original on May 8, 2021. Retrieved May 9, 2021.
• "Exploring the Moon". Lunar and Planetary Institute. Archived from the original on May 10, 2021. Retrieved May 9, 2021.
• Mackenzie, Dana (2003). The Big Splat, or How Our Moon Came to Be. Hoboken, NJ:
  ISBN 978-0-471-15057-2. Archived
  from the original on June 17, 2020. Retrieved June 11, 2019.
• ISBN 978-0-304-35469-6
  .
• "Moon Articles". Planetary Science Research Discoveries. Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology. Archived from the original on November 17, 2015. Retrieved November 18, 2006.
• Spudis, P.D. (1996). The Once and Future Moon.
  ISBN 978-1-56098-634-8. Archived
  from the original on June 17, 2020. Retrieved June 11, 2019.
• Taylor, S.R. (1992). Solar system evolution.
  ISBN 978-0-521-37212-1
  .
• Teague, K. (2006). "The Project Apollo Archive". Archived from the original on April 4, 2007. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
• Wilhelms, D.E. (1987). "Geologic History of the Moon". U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper. Professional Paper. 1348.
  doi:10.3133/pp1348. Archived
  from the original on February 23, 2019. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
• Wilhelms, D.E. (1993). To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration. Tucson:
  ISBN 978-0-8165-1065-8. Archived
  from the original on June 17, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2009.

External links

• NASA images and videos about the Moon
• Albums of images and high-resolution overflight videos by Seán Doran, based on
  LROC data, on Flickr and YouTube
• Video (04:56) – The Moon in 4K (NASA, April 2018) on
  YouTube
• Video (04:47) – The Moon in 3D (NASA, July 2018) on
  YouTube

Cartographic resources

• Unified Geologic Map of the Moon – United States Geological Survey
• Moon Trek – An integrated map browser of datasets and maps for the Moon
• The Moon on Google Maps, a 3-D rendition of the Moon akin to Google Earth
• "Consolidated Lunar Atlas". Lunar and Planetary Institute. Retrieved February 26, 2012.
• Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature (USGS) List of feature names.
• "Clementine Lunar Image Browser".
  U.S. Navy. October 15, 2003. Archived from the original
  on April 7, 2007. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
• 3D zoomable globes:
  • "Google Moon". 2007. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
  • "Moon". World Wind Central. NASA. 2007. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
• Aeschliman, R. "Lunar Maps". Planetary Cartography and Graphics. Archived from the original on May 29, 2015. Retrieved April 12, 2007. Maps and panoramas at Apollo landing sites
• Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) Kaguya (Selene) images
• Lunar Earthside chart (4497 x 3150px) Archived October 30, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
• Large image of the Moon's north pole area Archived August 23, 2016, at the Wayback Machine

Observation tools

• "NASA's SKYCAL – Sky Events Calendar". NASA. Archived from the original on August 20, 2007. Retrieved August 27, 2007.
• "Find moonrise, moonset and moonphase for a location". 2008. Retrieved February 18, 2008.
• "HMNAO's Moon Watch". 2005. Archived from the original on February 4, 2009. Retrieved May 24, 2009. See when the next new crescent moon is visible for any location.

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