Moral skepticism
Moral skepticism (or moral scepticism in
Some defenders of moral skepticism include
Forms of moral skepticism
Moral skepticism is divided into three subclasses: moral error theory (or moral nihilism), epistemological moral skepticism, and noncognitivism.[1] All three of these theories reach the same conclusions, which are:
- (a) we are never justified in believing that moral claims (claims of the form "state of affairs x is (morally) good," "action y is morally obligatory," etc.) are true, and, furthermore,
- (b) we never know that any moral claim is true.
However, each method arrives at (a) and (b) by a different route.
Moral error theory holds that we do not know that any moral claim is true because
- (i) all moral claims are false,
- (ii) we have reason to believe that all moral claims are false, and
- (iii) since we are not justified in believing any claim we have reason to deny, we are not justified in believing any moral claims.
Epistemological moral skepticism is a subclass of theory, the members of which include
- Pyrrhonian moral skepticism holds that the reason we are unjustified in believing any moral claim is that it is irrational for us to believe either that any moral claim is true or that any moral claim is false. Thus, in addition to being agnostic on whether (i) is true, Pyrrhonian moral skepticism denies (ii).
- Dogmatic moral skepticism, on the other hand, affirms (ii) and cites (ii)'s truth as the reason we are unjustified in believing any moral claim.
Finally, Noncognitivism holds that we can never know that any moral claim is true because moral claims are incapable of being true or false (they are not truth-apt). Instead, moral claims are imperatives (e.g. "Don't steal babies!"), expressions of emotion (e.g. "stealing babies: Boo!"), or expressions of "pro-attitudes" ("I do not believe that babies should be stolen.")
Moral error theory
Moral
The first argument people attribute to Mackie, often called the
The other argument often attributed to Mackie, often called the argument from disagreement,[3] maintains that any moral claim (e.g. "Killing babies is wrong") entails a correspondent "reasons claim" ("one has reason not to kill babies"). Put another way, if "killing babies is wrong" is true then everybody has a reason to not kill babies. This includes the psychopath who takes great pleasure from killing babies, and is utterly miserable when he does not have their blood on his hands. But, surely, (if we assume that he will suffer no reprisals) this psychopath has every reason to kill babies, and no reason not to do so. All moral claims are thus false.
Epistemological moral skepticism
All versions of epistemological moral skepticism hold that we are unjustified in believing any moral proposition. However, in contradistinction to moral error theory, epistemological moral skeptical arguments for this conclusion do not include the premise that "all moral claims are false." For example, Michael Ruse
Nietzsche's moral skepticism centers on the profound and ongoing lack of consensus among philosophers regarding foundational moral propositions. He highlights the persistent debates on whether the basis of right action is rooted in reasons or consequences, and the diverse, conflicting theories within Western moral philosophy.[5]
Noncognitivism
Criticisms
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Criticisms of moral skepticism come primarily from moral realists. The moral realist argues that there is in fact good reason to believe that there are objective moral truths and that we are justified in holding many moral beliefs. One moral realist response to moral error theory holds that it "proves too much"—if moral claims are false because they entail that we have reasons to do certain things regardless of our preferences, then so too are "hypothetical imperatives" (e.g. "if you want to get your hair-cut you ought to go to the barber"). This is because all hypothetical imperatives imply that "we have reason to do that which will enable us to accomplish our ends" and so, like moral claims, they imply that we have reason to do something regardless of our preferences.[6]
If moral claims are false because they have this implication, then so too are hypothetical imperatives. But hypothetical imperatives are true. Thus the argument from the non-instantiation of (what Mackie terms) "objective prescriptivity" for moral error theory fails. Russ Shafer-Landau and Daniel Callcut have each outlined anti-skeptical strategies. Callcut argues that moral skepticism should be scrutinized in introductory ethics classes in order to get across the point that "if all views about morality, including the skeptical ones, face difficulties, then adopting a skeptical position is not an escape from difficulty."[7]
See also
References
- ^ Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter (November 21, 2019). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- ^ D. Brink, "Moral Realism and the Skeptical Arguments from Disagreement and Queerness," Australasian Journal of Philosophy 62 (1984)
- ^ a b c Joyce, Richard (2001). The Myth of Morality, Cambridge University Press.
- ^ M. Ruse, Taking Darwin Seriously (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986)
- ^ "Moral Skepticism and Moral Disagreement: Developing an Argument from Nietzsche « On the Human". nationalhumanitiescenter.org. Retrieved October 23, 2023.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 16, 2011. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
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: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ Daniel Callcut, "The Value of Teaching Moral Skepticism," in Teaching Philosophy Volume 29, Number 3 (Sep 2006), p. 231, online at http://philpapers.org/archive/CALTVO-2
Further reading
- Butchvarov, Panayot (1989). Skepticism in Ethics, Indiana University Press. [ISBN missing]
- Gibbard, Allan (1990). Wise Choices, Apt Feelings. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. [ISBN missing]
- Harman, Gilbert (1975). "Moral Relativism Defended," Philosophical Review, pp. 3–22.[ISBN missing]
- Harman, Gilbert (1977). The Nature of Morality. New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN missing]
- Joyce, Richard (2001). The Myth of Morality, Cambridge University Press. [ISBN missing]
- Joyce, Richard (2006). The Evolution of Morality, MIT Press. (link)
- Lillehammer, Halvard (2007). Companions in Guilt: arguments for ethical objectivity, Palgrave MacMillan. [ISBN missing]
- Mackie, J. L. (1977). Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, Penguin. [ISBN missing]
- Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter (2006a). "Moral Skepticism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (link)
- Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter (2006b). Moral Skepticisms, Oxford University Press. [ISBN missing]
- Olson, Jonas (2014) Moral Error Theory: History, Critique, Defence, Oxford University Press.[ISBN missing]
- Kalf, Wouter (2018) Moral Error Theory, Palgrave MacMillan. [ISBN missing]
External links
- Moral skepticism at PhilPapers
- Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter. "Moral Skepticism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Campbell, Richmond. "Moral Epistemology". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Richardson, Henry S. "Moral Reasoning". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Moral skepticism at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project