Morisco
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Moriscos (Spanish:
The
In Spanish, morisco was also used in official colonial-era documentation in Spanish America to denote mixed-race castas: the children of relations between Spanish men and women of mixed African-European ancestry.
Name and etymology
The label morisco for Muslims who converted to Christianity began to appear in texts in the first half of the sixteenth century, though use of the term at this time was limited.
The word morisco appears in twelfth-century Castilian texts as an adjective for the noun moro.[7] These two words are comparable to the English adjective "Moorish" and noun "Moor".[7] Mediaeval Castilians used the words in the general senses of "Muslim" or an "Arabic-speaker" as in the case of Muslim converts;[7] the words continued to be used in these older meanings even after the more specific meaning of morisco (which does not have a corresponding noun) became widespread.
According to
In 1517, the word morisco became a "category" added to the array of cultural and religious identities that existed at the time, used to identify Muslim converts to Christianity in Granada and Castille. The term was a pejorative adaptation of the adjective morisco ("Moorish"). It soon became the standard term to refer to all former Muslims in Spain.[11]
In Spanish America, morisco (or morisca, in feminine form) was used to identify a racial category: a mixed-race casta, the child of a Spaniard (español) and a mulatto (offspring of a Spaniard and a negro, generally a lighter-complexioned person with some African ancestry). This was probably due to a perception that such individuals looked similar to North Africans, appearing mostly white but with a somewhat visible sub-Saharan African admixture. The term appears in colonial-era marriage registers identifying individuals and in eighteenth-century casta paintings.[12] The term quadroon was a similar term for quarter-black people in English colonies.
Demographics
There is no universally agreed figure for the Morisco population.[13] Estimates vary because of the lack of a precise census. In addition, the Moriscos avoided registration and the authorities and tried to appear as members of the majority Spanish population.[13] Furthermore, populations would have fluctuated, due to such factors as birth rates, conquests, conversions, relocations, and emigration.[14]
Historians generally agree that, based on expulsion records, around 275,000 Moriscos were expelled from Spain in the early 17th century.
Kingdom of Granada
The
Although they converted to Christianity, they maintained their existing customs, including their language, distinct names, food, dress and even some ceremonies.
Kingdom of Valencia
In 1492, the
In the 1520s, the
After the forced conversions, Valencia was the region where the remains of Islamic culture was the strongest.
Aragon and Catalonia
Moriscos accounted for 20% of the population of the kingdom of Aragon, residing principally on the banks of the Ebro river and its tributaries. Unlike Granadan and Valencian Moriscos, they did not speak Arabic but, as vassals of the nobility, were granted the privilege to practice their faith relatively openly.
Places like
In
Castile, Extremadura and the rest of Andalusia
The Crown of Castile included, besides the Kingdom of Granada, also
Canary Islands
The situation of the Moriscos in the
Religion
Christianity
While the Moors chose to leave Spain and emigrate to North Africa, the Moriscos accepted Christianity and gained certain cultural and legal privileges for doing so.[42]
Many Moriscos became devout in their new Christian faith,
Islam
Because conversions to Christianity were decreed by law rather than by their own will, most Moriscos still genuinely believed in Islam.
The writing of a Morisco crypto-Muslim author known as the "
Extant copies of the
The Moriscos also likely wrote the Lead Books of Sacromonte, texts written in Arabic claiming to be Christian sacred books from the first century AD.[60] Upon their discovery in the mid-1590s, the books were initially greeted enthusiastically by the Christians of Granada and treated by the Christian authorities as genuine, causing a sensation throughout Europe due to their (ostensibly) ancient origin.[61][62] Hispano-Arabic historian Leonard Patrick Harvey proposed that the Moriscos wrote these texts in order to infiltrate Christianity from within, by emphasizing aspects of Christianity which were acceptable to Muslims.[63][46] The content of the text was superficially Christian and did not refer to Islam at all, but contained many "Islamizing" features. The text never featured the Trinity doctrine or referred to Jesus as Son of God, concepts which are blasphemous and offensive in Islam.[46] Instead, it repeatedly stated "There is no god but God and Jesus is the Spirit of God (ruh Allah)", which is unambiguously close to the Islamic shahada[63] and referred to the Qur'anic epithet for Jesus, "the Spirit of God".[64][65] It contained passages which appeared (unbeknownst to the Christians at the time) to implicitly predict the arrival of Muhammad by mentioning his various Islamic epithets.[66]
In many ways, their situation was comparable to that of the
Timeline
Conquest of al-Andalus
Islam had been present in Spain since the
The Christians called the defeated Muslims who came under their rule the
Forced conversions of Muslims
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2022) |
When efforts by Granada's first archbishop,
In 1501 Castilian authorities delivered an ultimatum to Granada's Muslims: either convert to Christianity or be expelled. Most did convert, in order not to have their property and small children taken away from them. Many continued to dress in their traditional fashion, speak Arabic, and secretly practiced
However, King Ferdinand, as ruler of the Crown of Aragon, continued to tolerate the large Muslim population living in his territory. Since the Crown of Aragon was juridically independent of Castile, their policies towards Muslims could and did differ during this period. Historians have suggested that the Crown of Aragon was inclined to tolerate Islam in its realm because the landed nobility there depended on the cheap, plentiful labor of Muslim vassals.[70] However, the landed elite's exploitation of Aragon's Muslims also exacerbated class resentments. In the 1520s, when Valencian guilds rebelled against the local nobility in the Revolt of the Brotherhoods, the rebels "saw that the simplest way to destroy the power of the nobles in the countryside would be to free their vassals, and this they did by baptizing them."[70] The Inquisition and monarchy decided to prohibit the forcibly baptized Muslims of Valencia from returning to Islam. Finally, in 1526, King Charles V issued a decree compelling all Muslims in the crown of Aragon to convert to Catholicism or leave the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal had already expelled or forcibly converted its Muslims in 1497 and established its own Inquisition in 1536).
After the conversion
In Granada for the first decades after the conversion, the former Muslim elites of the former Emirate became the middlemen between the crown and the Morisco population. A certain religious tolerance, too, was still observable during the first half of the 16th century.[71][page needed][clarification needed] They became alguaciles, hidalgos, courtiers, advisors to the royal court and translators of Arabic.[72] They helped collect taxes; taxes from Granada made up one-fifth of Castile's income, [73] and became the advocates and defenders of Moriscos within royal circles.[74] Some of them became genuine Christians while others secretly continued to be Muslims.[74] The Islamic faith and tradition were more persistent among the Granadan lower class, both in the city and in the countryside.[74] The city of Granada was divided into Morisco and Old Christian quarters, and the countryside often had alternating zones dominated by Old or New Christians.[74] Royal and Church authorities tended to ignore the secret but persistent Islamic practices and traditions among some of the Morisco population.[74][43]
Outside Granada, the role of advocates and defenders were taken by the Morisco's Christian lords.
In 1567, Philip II directed Moriscos to give up their Arabic names and traditional dress, and prohibited the use of the
Expulsion
At the instigation of the
The majority were expelled from the Crown of Aragon (modern day Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia), particularly from Valencia, where Morisco communities remained large, visible and cohesive; and Christian animosity was acute, particularly for economic reasons. Some historians have blamed the subsequent economic collapse of the Spanish Eastern Mediterranean coast on the region's inability to replace Morisco workers successfully with Christian newcomers. Many villages were totally abandoned as a result. New laborers were fewer in number and were not as familiar with local agricultural techniques.
In the Crown of Castile (including Andalusia, Murcia and the former kingdom of Granada), by contrast, the scale of Morisco expulsion was much less severe. This was due to the fact that their presence was less felt as they were considerably more integrated in their communities, enjoying the support and sympathy from local Christian populations, authorities and, in some occasions, the clergy. Furthermore, the internal dispersion of the more distinct Morisco communities of Granada throughout Castile and Andalusia after the War of the Alpujarras, made this community of Moriscos harder to track and identify, allowing them to merge with and disappear into the wider society.
Although many Moriscos were sincere Christians,
The overwhelming majority of the refugees settled in Muslim-held lands, mostly in the Ottoman Empire, in (Algeria, Tunisia) or Morocco, or in Galata -- in 1609-1620's many Moriscos settled there.[85]
International relations
French
During the reign of Sultan
Mohammed ash-Sheikh (1554–1557), the Turkish danger was felt on the eastern borders of Morocco and the sovereign, even though a hero of the holy war against Christians, showed a great political realism by becoming an ally of the King of Spain, still the champion of Christianity. Everything changed from 1609, when King Philip III of Spain decided to expel the Moriscos who, numbering about three hundred thousand, were converted Muslims who had remained Christian. Rebels, always ready to rise, they vigorously refused to convert and formed a state within a state. The danger was that with the Turkish pressing from the east, the Spanish authorities, who saw in them [the Moriscos] a "potential danger", decided to expel them, mainly to Morocco....— Bernard Lugan, Histoire du Maroc: Le Maroc et L'Occident du XVIe au XXe Siecle [History of Morocco:Morocco and the West from the 16th to the 20th Centuries), Cliothèque(Philippe Conrad ed.)
Spanish spies reported that the
Literature
Miguel de Cervantes' writings, such as Don Quixote and Conversation of the Two Dogs, offer ambivalent views of Moriscos. In the first part of Don Quixote (before the expulsion), a Morisco translates a found document containing the Arabic "history" that Cervantes is merely "publishing". In the second part, after the expulsion,
Toward the end of the 16th century, Morisco writers challenged the perception that their culture was alien to Spain. Their literary works expressed early Spanish history in which Arabic-speaking Spaniards played a positive role. Chief among such works is Verdadera historia del rey don Rodrigo by Miguel de Luna (c. 1545–1615).[90]
Aftermath
Scholars have noted that many Moriscos joined the
Morisco mercenaries in the service of the Moroccan sultan, using
Modern studies in population genetics have attributed unusually high levels of recent North African ancestry in modern Spaniards to Moorish settlement during the Islamic period[92][93][94] and, more specifically, to the substantial proportion of Morisco population which remained in Spain and avoided expulsion.[95][96]
Moriscos in Spain after the expulsion
It is impossible to know how many Moriscos remained after the expulsion, with traditional Spanish historiography considering that none remained and initial academic estimates such as those of Lapeyre offering figures as low as ten or fifteen thousand remaining. However, recent studies have been challenging the traditional discourse on the supposed success of the expulsion in purging Spain of its Morisco population. Indeed, it seems that expulsion met widely differing levels of success, particularly between the two major Spanish crowns of Castile and Aragón and recent historical studies also agree that both the original Morisco population and the number of them who avoided expulsion is higher than was previously thought.[97]
One of the earliest re-examinations of Morisco expulsion was carried out by Trevor J. Dadson in 2007, devoting a significant section to the expulsion in Villarrubia de los Ojos in southern Castille. Villarubia's entire Morisco population were the target of three expulsions which they managed to avoid or from which they succeeded in returning from to their town of origin, being protected and hidden by their non-Morisco neighbours. Dadson provides numerous examples, of similar incidents throughout Spain whereby Moriscos were protected and supported by non-Moriscos[97] and returned en masse from North Africa, Portugal or France to their towns of origin.
A similar study on the expulsion in Andalusia concluded it was an inefficient operation which was significantly reduced in its severity by resistance to the measure among local authorities and populations. It further highlights the constant flow of returnees from North Africa, creating a dilemma for the local inquisition who did not know how to deal with those who had been given no choice but to convert to Islam during their stay in Muslim lands as a result of the Royal Decree. Upon the coronation of Philip IV, the new king gave the order to desist from attempting to impose measures on returnees and in September 1628 the Council of the Supreme Inquisition ordered inquisitors in Seville not to prosecute expelled Moriscos "unless they cause significant commotion."[98]
An investigation published in 2012 sheds light on the thousands of Moriscos who remained in the province of Granada alone, surviving both the initial expulsion to other parts of Spain in 1571 and the final expulsion of 1604. These Moriscos managed to evade in various ways the royal decrees, hiding their true origin thereafter. More surprisingly, by the 17th and 18th centuries much of this group accumulated great wealth by controlling the silk trade and also holding about a hundred public offices. Most of these lineages were nevertheless completely assimilated over generations despite their endogamic practices. A compact core of active crypto-Muslims was prosecuted by the Inquisition in 1727, receiving comparatively light sentences. These convicts kept alive their identity until the late 18th century.[99]
The attempted expulsion of Moriscos from Extremadura was deemed a failure, with the exception of the speedy expulsion of the Moriscos of the town of Hornachos who would become the founders of the Republic of Salé in modern-day Morocco. Extremaduran Moriscos benefited from systematic support from authorities and society throughout the region and numerous Moriscos avoiding deportation while whole communities such as those of Alcántara temporarily shifted across the border to Portugal only to return later. The expulsion between 1609–1614, therefore, did not come close to its objective of eliminating Morisco presence from the region.[100]
Similar patterns are observed in a detailed examination of the Expulsion in the southeastern Region of Murcia, large swathes of which were of Morisco majority. Morisco integration had reached high levels at the time of expulsion, they formed a strong socio-economic block with complex family ties and good-neighbourly relations. This resulted in the possibility of return, with few exceptions, to be offered and taken by a majority of Moriscos expelled. Although some were initially persecuted upon return, by 1622 they were no longer given any trouble from authorities.[101]
Recent genetic studies of North African admixture among modern-day Spaniards have found high levels of North African (Berber) and Sub-Saharan African admixture among Spanish and Portuguese populations as compared to the rest of southern and western Europe, and such admixture does not follow a North-South gradient as one would initially expect, but more of an East-West one.[102]
While the descendants of those Moriscos who fled to North Africa have remained strongly aware and proud of their Andalusi roots,[103] the Moriscos' identity as a community was wiped out in Spain, be it via either expulsion or absorption by the dominant culture. Nevertheless, a journalistic investigation over the past years has uncovered existing communities in rural Spain (more specifically in the provinces of Murcia and Albacete) which seem to have maintained traces of their Islamic or Morisco identity, secretly practicing a debased form of Islam as late as the 20th century, as well as conserving Morisco customs and unusual Arabic vocabulary in their speech.[104]
The ineffectiveness of the expulsion in the lands of Castile nevertheless contrasts with that of the
Modern-day ethnicities in Spain associated with Moriscos
A number of ethnicities in northern Spain have historically been suspected of having Morisco roots. Among them are the
Moriscos and population genetics
Spain's Morisco population was the last population who self-identified and traced its roots to the various waves of Muslim conquerors from North Africa. Historians generally agree that, at the height of Muslim rule, Muladis or Muslims of pre-Islamic Iberian origin were likely to constitute the large majority of Muslims in Spain, with over 75% of Al-Andalusian Iberians estimated to have converted by the 11th century.[107] Studies in population genetics which aim to ascertain Morisco ancestry in modern populations search for Iberian or European genetic markers among contemporary Morisco descendants in North Africa,[108] and for North African genetic markers among modern day Spaniards.[95]
A wide number of recent genetic studies of modern-day Spanish and Portuguese populations have ascertained significantly higher levels of North African admixture in the Iberian peninsula than in the rest of the European continent.
As for tracing Morisco descendants in North Africa, to date there have been few genetic studies of populations of Morisco origin in the Maghreb region, although studies of the Moroccan population have not detected significant recent genetic inflow from the Iberian peninsula.[citation needed] A recent study of various Tunisian ethnic groups has found that all were indigenous North African, including those who self-identified as Andalusians.[108]
Descendants and Spanish citizenship
In October 2006, the Andalusian Parliament asked the three parliamentary groups that form the majority to support an amendment that would ease the way for Morisco descendants to gain Spanish citizenship. It was originally made by IULV-CA, the Andalusian branch of the United Left.[114] The proposal was refused.
Spanish Civil Code Art. 22.1 do provide concessions to nationals of the
According to the President of Andalusi Historical Memory Association, Nayib Loubaris, this measure could potentially cover as many as 600 families of Morisco origin in what today is Morocco, who would have moved to Rabat and various other cities across the country. Such families are easily recognizable by their Spanish surnames such as Torres, Loubaris (from Olivares), Bargachi (from Vargas), Buano (from Bueno), Sordo, Denia, and Lucas.[116] Earlier estimates had involved much larger figures of potential descendants (up to 5 million in Morocco and an indeterminate number from other Muslim countries).[117]
Since 1992 some Spanish and Moroccan historians and academics have been demanding equitable treatment for Moriscos similar to that offered to
Notable Moriscos and Morisco descendants
- Aben Humeya, born with the Christian name Fernando de Córdoba y Válor, leader of the Morisco revolt.
- Young Man of Arévalo, crypto-Muslim author in Spain.
- Abdelkader Pérez, Moroccan ambassador to England.
- witch-hunter.
- Abdelkhalek Torres, Moroccan nationalist leader during the Spanish protectorate, Moroccan ambassador to Spain and Egypt and Minister of Justice.
- Leo Africanus, Berber Andalusi diplomat and author
- Ahmed Balafrej, Moroccan politician
- Omar Balafrej, Moroccan politician, great nephew of Ahmed Balafrej.
- Si Kaddour Benghabrit, Algerian religious leader, translator and interpreter.
- Rodolfo Gil Benumeya, Spanish journalist, essayist, Arabist and historian.
- Rodolfo Gil Grimau , Spanish Arabist.
See also
- Al-Andalus, the part of the Iberian Peninsula under Islamic rule.
- Alhambra Decree
- Aljamiado, a Romance language written in Arabic characters.
- Almogavars, rough Christian soldiers
- Andalusian Arabic, the former language of Moriscoes.
- Arab Christians
- Castas
- Conversos, the baptized Jews and Muslims of the Iberian Peninsula and their descendants.
- Crypto-Christianity
- Crypto-Islam
- Crypto-Judaism
- Forced conversion
- Hispano-Moresque ware
- Hornachos, a village inhabited by Moriscos.
- Genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula
- Genetic studies of Moroccans
- Limpieza de sangre, the rules of ethnic discrimination against Conversos.
- Marranos, baptized Jews
- Monfi, the Moriscos who lived from banditry
- Moors, the Muslim inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa.
- Morisco Revolt
- Mozarabs, Christians under Islamic rule.
- Mozarabic language, the Romance language spoken in Al-Andalus.
- Mudéjar, Muslims under Christian rule
- Muwallad, a Christian converted to Islam after the Islamic conquest
- Persecution of Muslims
- Philip III of Spain
- Reconquista, the conquest of Al-Andalus by the Christians of the North.
- Torna atrás
- Treaty of Granada (1491)
References
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We know that many of the Moriscos were well acculturated to Christian ways, and that many had even become sincere Roman Catholics.
- ^ Carr 2009, p. 213: "In Granada, Moriscos were killed because they refused to renounce their adopted faith. Elsewhere in Spain, Moriscos went to mass and heard confession and appeared to do everything that their new faith required of them."
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Early modern Spaniards, whether Old Christians or Moriscos, often used the Virgin Mary as a figure through which to define a fixed boundary between Islam and Christianity. Yet a set of sacred scriptures created by some Moriscos in late sixteenth-century Granada went against this trend by presenting her as the patron saint of those New Christians who were proud of their Muslim ancestry.
- ^ a b c Harvey 2005, p. 270.
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Moriscos who were sincere Christians were also bound to remain second-class citizens, and might be exposed to criticism from Muslims and Christians alike.
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The majority of the forced emigrants settled in the Maghrib or Barbary Coast, especially in Oran, Tunis, Tlemcen, Tetuán, Rabat and Salé. Many travelled overland to France, but after the assassination of Henry of Navarre by Ravaillac in May 1610, they were forced to emigrate to Italy, Sicily or Constantinople.
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Pero los cromosomas cuentan otra historia. Nada menos que el 20% de la población ibérica actual desciende de sefardíes. Y otro 11%, de norteafricanos. Si ambos siguen aquí, es que nunca se marcharon.
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Esta medida podría beneficiar a unos cinco millones de ciudadanos marroquíes, que es el cálculo estimado de la población de origen andalusí en este país, más otro número indeterminado en Argelia, Túnez y Turquía.
- ^ La Junta Islámica pide para descendientes de moriscos la nacionalidad española (in Spanish)
Bibliography
- Barletta, Vincent. Covert Gestures: Crypto-Islamic Literature as Cultural Practice in Early Modern Spain. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005.
- Bernabé-Pons, Luis Fernando, Expulsion of the Muslims from Spain, EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2020, retrieved: March 17, 2021 (pdf).
- Carr, Matthew (2009). The Purging of Muslim Spain. The New Press. ISBN 978-1595583611.
- Casey. James."Moriscos and the Depopulation of Valencia" Past & Present No. 50 (Feb., 1971), pp. 19–40 online
- Catlos, Brian A. (2014). Muslims of Medieval Latin Christendom, c. 1050–1614. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521889391.
- Chejne, Anwar G. Islam and the West, the Moriscos: A Cultural and Social History (1983)
- Dadson, Trevor J. (2014). Tolerance and Coexistence in Early Modern Spain: Old Christians and Moriscos in the Campo de Calatrava. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. ISBN 978-1855662735.
- Gárcia-Arenal, Mercedes; Wiegers, Gerard, eds. (2014). The Expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain: A Mediterranean Diaspora. Leiden & Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-9004279353. Individual chapters:
- Vincent, Bernard (2014). The Geography of the Morisco Expulsion: A Quantitative Study.
- ISBN 978-0520067295.
- ISBN 978-0226319636.
- Hess, Andrew C. "The Moriscos: An Ottoman Fifth Column in Sixteenth-Century Spain." American Historical Review 74#1 (1968): 1–25. online
- Jónsson, Már. "The expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain in 1609–1614: the destruction of an Islamic periphery." Journal of Global History 2.2 (2007): 195–212.
- Lea, Henry Charles (1901). The Moriscos of Spain: Their Conversion and Expulsion. Philadelphia: Lea Brothers & Company.
- Lynch, John (1969). Spain under the Habsburgs. Vol. (vol. 2). Oxford, England: Alden Mowbray Ltd. pp. 42–51.
- Perry, Mary Elizabeth. The Handless Maiden: Moriscos and the Politics of Religion in Early Modern Spain, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 2005.
- Phillips, Carla Rahn. "The Moriscos of La Mancha, 1570–1614." The Journal of Modern History 50.S2 (1978): D1067–D1095. online
- Monter, E. William (2003). Frontiers of Heresy: The Spanish Inquisition from the Basque Lands to Sicily. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521522595.
- Wiegers, Gerard A. Islamic Literature in Spanish and Aljamiado: Iça of Segovia (fl. 1450), His antecedents and Successors. Leiden: Brill, 1994.
- Wiegers, Gerard A. "Managing Disaster: Networks of the Moriscos during the Process of the Expulsion from the Iberian Peninsula around 1609." Journal of Medieval Religious Cultures 36.2 (2010): 141–168.
In Spanish
- Domínguez Ortiz, Antonio and Bernard Vincent. Historia de los moriscos: Vida y tragedia de una minoría. Madrid: Alianza, 1978.
- Drummond Braga, Isabel M. R. Mendes. Mouriscos e cristãos no Portugal quinhentista: Duas culturas e duas concepções religiosas em choque. Lisbon: Hugin, 1999.
- García-Arenal, Mercedes. Los moriscos. Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1975.
- Lapeyre, Henry (2011). Geografía de la España morisca (in Spanish). Universitat de València. ISBN 978-8437084138.
- Bernabé Pons, Luis F., Los moriscos. Conflicto, expulsión y diáspora, Madrid: Catarata, 2009.
- Stallaert, Christiane (1998). Etnogénesis y etnicidad en España: una aproximación histórico-antropológica al casticismo. Barcelona: Proyecto a Ediciones. ISBN 978-8492233571.
External links
- Alhadith, a web resource at Stanford University for students and scholars of Morisco language and culture
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 837–838. .
- The expulsion of Muslims from Spain by Professor Roger Boase
- Columbia Encyclopedia
- Aljamiado-morisco manuscripts
- Treaty of Granada
- Moriscos culture influence in Morocco. Study in Spanish with Arabic translation
- ´The Moriscos of Spain, their conversion and expulsion´ by Lea, Henry Charles