Moses in Islam
Shu'ayb | |
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Successor | Harun |
Spouse | Ṣaffūrah |
Relatives | Yūkābid (mother) Asiya (adoptive mother) Miriam (sister) Hārūn (brother) |
Mūsā ibn ʿImrān (
According to the
Musa is viewed as a very important figure in Islam. According to Islamic theology, all
Generally, Moses is seen as a legendary figure by biblical scholars, some of whom consider it possible that Moses or a Moses-like figure existed in the 13th century BCE.[10][11][12][13][14]
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Musa |
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Life
Childhood
In Islamic tradition, Musa was born into a family of Israelites living in Egypt. Of his family, Islamic tradition generally names his father 'Imran, corresponding to the Amram of the Hebrew Bible, traditional genealogies name Levi as his ancestor.[15] Islam states that Musa was born in a time when the ruling King had enslaved the Israelites after the time of the prophet Yusuf (Joseph). Islamic literature states that around the time of Musa's birth, the Pharaoh had a dream in which he saw fire coming from the city of Jerusalem, which burned everything in his kingdom except in the land of the Israelites. Another version says that the Pharaoh dreamed of a little boy who caught the Pharaoh's crown and destroyed it,[16] although there is no authentic Islamic reference to whether the dreams actually occurred. When the Pharaoh is informed that one of the male children would grow up to overthrow him, he orders the killing of all newborn Israelite males in order to prevent the prediction from occurring.[17] Experts of economics in Pharaoh's court advise him that killing the male infants of the Israelites would result in loss of manpower.[18] Therefore, they suggest that male infants should be killed in one year but spared the next.[18] Musa's brother, Harun, was born in the year when infants were spared, while Musa was born in the year when infants were to be killed.[19]
Incident of the Nile
According to Islamic tradition, Jochebed, Musa's mother, suckled him secretly during this period. When they were in danger of being caught, God instructed her to put him in a wicker basket and set him adrift on the Nile.[20] She instructs her daughter to follow the course of the ark and report back to her. As her daughter follows the ark along the riverbank, Musa is discovered by the Pharaoh's wife, Asiya, who convinces the Pharaoh to adopt him.[21][22] When Asiya ordered wet nurses for Musa, Musa refuses to be breastfed. Islamic tradition states that this is because God forbids Musa from being fed by any wet nurse in order to reunite him with his mother.[23] His sister worries that Musa has not been fed for some time, so she appears to the Pharaoh and informs him that she knows someone who can feed him.[24] After being questioned, she is ordered to bring the woman being discussed.[24] The sister brings their mother, who feeds Musa, and thereafter, she is appointed as the wet nurse of Musa.[25]
Historicity
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Prophethood
Test of prophecy
According to
Escape to Midian and Marriage
After having reached adulthood, according to the Quran, Musa is passing through a city when he comes across an Egyptian fighting with an Israelite. The Israelite man is believed to be Sam'ana, known in the
Preaching
Call to prophethood
According to the Quran, Musa departs for
The Quran states that Musa was sent by God to confront the erstwhile (pharaoh) of ancient Egypt and to guide the Israelites, who were enslaved by the former. The Quran directly validates Musa and Harun as prophets chosen by God:
And mention in the Book ˹O Prophet, the story of˺ Moses. He was truly a chosen man, and was a messenger and a prophet. We called him from the right side of Mount Ṭûr, and drew him near, speaking ˹with him˺ directly. And We appointed for him—out of Our grace—his brother, Aaron, as a prophet.
Arrival at Pharaoh's court
When Musa and Harun arrive in the court of Pharaoh and proclaim their prophethood to the Pharaoh, the Pharaoh begins questioning Musa about the God he follows. The Quran narrates that Musa answers the Pharaoh by stating that he follows the God who gives everything its form and guides them.
Confrontation with sorcerers
When the sorcerers come to the Pharaoh, he promises them that they would be among the honored among his assembly if they won. On the day of the festival of Egypt, Musa grants the sorcerers the chance to perform first and warned them that God would expose their tricks. The Quran states that the sorcerers bewitch the eyes of the observers and cause them terror.[42][self-published source] The summoned sorcerers throw their rods on the floor, and they appear to change into snakes by the effect of their magic. At first, Musa becomes concerned witnessing the tricks of the magicians, but is assured by God to not be worried. When Musa does the same his rod, the serpent devours all the sorcerers' snakes.[43] The sorcerers realize that they have witnessed a miracle. They proclaim belief in the message of Musa and fall onto their knees in prostration despite threats from the Pharaoh. The Pharaoh is enraged by this and accuses them of working under Musa. He warns them that if they insist in believing in Musa, he would cut their hands and feet on opposite sides, and crucify them on the trunks of palm trees for their betrayal of the Pharaoh. The magicians, however, remain steadfast to their newfound faith and are punished by Pharaoh.[44]
Exodus
Plagues of Egypt
After losing against Musa, the Pharaoh continues to plan against Musa and the Israelites, ordering meetings with the ministers, princes and priests. According to the Quran, the Pharaoh is reported to have ordered his minister, Haman, to build a tower so that he "may look at the God of Musa".
Dividing the sea
Having escaped and now being pursued by the Egyptians, the Israelites stop when they reach the seafront. The Israelites exclaim to Musa that they would be overtaken by Pharaoh and his army. In response, God commands Musa to strike the Red Sea with his staff, instructing them not to fear being inundated or drowning in sea water. Upon striking the sea, Musa splits it into two parts, forming a path that allows the Israelites to pass through. The Pharaoh witnesses the sea dividing alongside his army, but as they also try to pass through, the sea closes in on them.[49][50] As he is about to die, Pharaoh proclaims belief in the God of Musa and the Israelites, but his belief is rejected by God.[51] The Quran states that the body of the Pharaoh is made a sign and warning for all future generations. As the Israelites continue their journey to the Promised Land, they come upon people who are worshipping idols. The Israelites request to have an idol to worship, but Musa refuses and states that the polytheists would be destroyed by God.[52] They are granted manna and quail as sustenance from God, but the Israelites ask Musa to pray to God for the earth to grow lentils, onions, herbs and cucumbers for their sustenance.[53] When they stop in their travel to the Promised Land due to lack of water, Musa is commanded by God to strike a stone, and upon its impact twelve springs came forth, each for a specific tribe of the Israelites.[54]
Years in the wilderness
Revelation of the Torah
After leaving Egypt, Musa leads the Israelites to
Musa is then given the
Musa then chooses 70 elites from among the Israelites and orders them to pray for forgiveness. Shortly thereafter, the elders travel alongside Musa to witness the speech between Musa and God. Despite witnessing the speech between them, they refuse to believe until they see God with their own eyes, so as punishment, a thunderbolt kills them. Musa prays for their forgiveness, and they are resurrected. They return to camp and set up a tent dedicated to worshiping God, as Harun had taught them from the Torah. They resume their journey towards the Promised Land.
The Israelites and the cow
Islamic exegesis narrates the incident of an old and pious man who lives among the Israelites and earns his living honestly. As he is dying, he places his wife, his little son, and his only possession—a calf in God's care—instructing his wife to take the calf and leave it in a forest.[61] His wife does as she is told, and after a few years, when the son has grown up, she informs him about the calf. The son travels to the forest with a rope.[62] He prostrates and prays to God to return the calf to him. As the son prays, the now-grown cow stops beside him. The son takes the cow with him. The son is also pious and earns his living as a lumberjack.
One wealthy man among the Israelites dies and leaves his wealth to his son. The relatives of the wealthy son secretly murder the son in order to inherit his wealth. The other relatives of the son come to Musa and ask for his help in tracing the killers. Musa instructs them to slaughter a cow, cut out its tongue, and then place it on the corpse; this would reveal the killers.[63] The relatives do not believe Musa and do not understand why they are instructed to slaughter a cow when they are trying to find the killers. They accuse Musa of joking, but Musa manages to convince them that he is serious. Hoping to delay the process, the relatives ask the type and age of the cow they should slaughter, but Musa tells them that it is neither old nor young but in-between the two ages.[64] Instead of searching for the cow described, they inquire about its colour, to which Musa replies that it is yellow.[65] They ask Musa for more details, and he informs them that it is unyoked, and does not plow the soil nor does it water the tilth. The relatives and Musa search for the described cow, but the only cow that they find to fit the description belongs to an orphaned youth.[66] The youth refuses to sell the cow without consulting his mother. All of them travel together to the youth's home. The mother refuses to sell the cow, despite the relatives constantly increasing the price. They urge the orphaned son to tell his mother to be more reasonable. However, the son refuse to sell the cow without his mother's agreement, claiming that he would not sell it even if they offered to fill its skin with gold. At this, the mother agrees to sell it for its skin filled with gold. The relatives and Musa consent, and the cow is slaughtered and the corpse is touched by its tongue.[67] The corpse rises back to life and reveals the identity of the killers.
Meeting with Khidr
One
They walk on the seashore and pass by a ship. The crew of the ship recognize Khidr and offer them to board their ship free of charge. When they are on the boat, Khidr takes an adze and pulls up a plank.[70] When Musa notices what Khidr is doing, he is astonished and stops him. Musa reminds Khidr that the crew has taken them aboard for free. Khidr admonishes Musa for forgetting his promise of not asking. Musa states that he has forgotten and asks to be forgiven. When they leave the seashore, they pass by a boy playing with others. Khidr takes hold of the boy's head and kills him.[70] Musa is again astonished by this action and questions Khidr regarding what he had done.[71] Khidr admonishes Musa again for not keeping his promise, and Musa apologizes and asks Khidr to leave him if he again questions Khidr. Both of them travel on until they happened upon a village. They ask the villagers for food, but the inhabitants refuse to entertain them as guests. They see therein a wall which is about to collapse, and Khidr repairs the wall. Musa asks Khidr why he had repaired the wall when the inhabitants refuse to entertain them as guests and give them food. Musa states that Khidr could have taken wages for his work.
Khidr informs Musa that they are now to part ways as Musa has broken his promise. Khidr then explains each of his actions. He informs Musa that he had broken the ship with the adze because a ruler who reigns in those parts took all functional ships by force; Khidr has created a defect in order to prevent their ship from being taken by force.[71] Khidr then explains that he has killed the child because he was mischievous and disobedient to his parents, and Khidr fears that the child would overburden them with his disobedience, and explained that God would replace him with a better one who is more obedient and has more affection. Khidr then explains that he has fixed the wall because it belongs to two helpless children whose father is pious. God wishes to reward them for their piety. Khidr states that there is a treasure hidden underneath the wall, and by repairing the wall, the wall would break in the future, and when dealing with the broken wall, the orphans would find the treasure.[72]
Other incidents
The sayings of Muhammad (hadith), Islamic literature and Quranic
Death
Harun dies shortly before Musa. It is reported in a Sunni hadith that when Azrael, the Angel of Death, comes to Musa, Musa slaps him in the eye. The angel returns to God and tells Him that Musa does not want to die.[74] God tells the angel to return and tell Musa to put his hand on the back of an ox, and for every hair that comes under his hand, he would be granted a year of life. When Musa asks God what would happen after the granted time, God informs him that he would die after the period. Musa, therefore, requests God for death at his current age near the Promised Land "at a distance of a stone's throw from it."[75]
Burial place
The grave of Musa is located at
The main body of the present shrine,
protected by walls, and includes 120 rooms in its two levels which hosted the visitors.Martyrdom
Moreover, by indicating that Musa wants to be separated from Harun, his brother, many of the Israelites proclaim that Musa had killed Harun on the mountain to secure this so-called separation. However, according to the accounts of
The unexpected death of Harun appears to make the argument that his death is merely an allusion to the mysterious and miraculous death of Musa. In the accounts of Musa’ death, al-Tabari reports, “[W]hile Musa was walking with his servant Joshua, a black wind suddenly approached. When Joshua saw it, he thought that the Hour—the hour of final judgement—was at hand. He clung to Musa…. But Musa withdrew himself gently from under his shirt, leaving it in Joshua’s hand”.[82] This mysterious death of Musa is also asserted in Deuteronomy 34:5, “And Musa the servant of the LORD died there in Moab”.[83] There is no explanation to why Musa may have died or why Musa may have been chosen to die: there is only this mysterious “disappearance”. According to Islamic tradition, Musa is buried at Maqam El-Nabi Musa, Jericho.
Although the death of Musa seems to be a topic of mysterious questioning, it is not the main focus of this information. However, according to Arabic translation of the word martyr, shahid—to see, to witness, to testify, to become a model and paradigm –
It is also stated in the Quran that the scriptures in which Musa brings forth from God to the Children of Israel are seen as the light and guidance of God himself (Q6:91). This strongly indicates that Musa dies as a martyr: Musa dies being a witness to God; Musa dies giving his sacrifice to the worldly views of God; and Musa dies in the act of conveying the message of God to the Children of Israel. Although his death remains a mystery and even though he did not act in a religious battle, he does in fact die for the causation of a Religious War, a war that showcases the messages of God through scripture.
In light of this observation, John Renard claims that Muslim tradition distinguishes three types of supernatural events: “the sign worked directly by God alone; the miracle worked through a prophet; and the marvel effected through a non-prophetic figure”.[87] If these three types of supernatural events are put into retrospect with the understanding of martyrdom and Musa, the aspect of being a martyr plays out to resemble the overall understanding of what “Islam” translates to. The concept of martyrdom in Islam is linked with the entire religion of Islam. This whole process can be somehow understood if the term 'Islam' is appreciated.[84] This is because being a derivate of the Arabic root salama, which means "surrender" and "peace", Islam is a wholesome and peaceful submission to the will of God. Just like Musa is an example of the surrender to God, the term "martyr" further reinforces the notion that through the signs, the miracle, and the marvel, the ones chosen by God are in direct correlation to the lives of the prophets.
In conclusion, although the death of Musa is a mysterious claim by God[clarification needed]. The framework of Musa describes the spiritual quest and progress of the individual soul as it unfolds to reveal the relationship to God.[88] Nevertheless, because of his actions, his ability to be a witness and his success at being a model for the Children of Israel his life were a buildup to the ideals of martyrdom. His death and his faithful obligations toward God have led his mysterious death to be an example of a true prophet and a true example of a martyrdom.
Isra and Mi'raj
During his
Musa and Muhammad are reported to have exchanged greetings with each other, and Musa is reported to have cried due to the fact that the followers of Muhammad are going to enter
In Islamic thought
Musa is revered as a prominent prophet and messenger in Islam, and his narrative is recounted the most among the prophets in the Quran.
Revealed scripture
In Islam, Musa is revered as the receiver of a scripture known as the Torah (
Some Muslims believe that the Torah has been corrupted (
In religious sects
In Islamic literature
Lineage of several prophets according to Islamic tradition |
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Dotted lines indicate multiple generations. |
Musa is also revered in
The
The Sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, regarded the journey of Musa to Midian and to the valley of Tuwa as a spiritual journey.[112] The turning of the face of Musa towards Midian is stated to be the turning of his heart towards God. His prayer to God asking for help of is described to be his awareness of his need. The commentary alleged to the Sixth Imam then states the command to remove his shoes symbolized the command to remove everything from his heart except God.[112] These attributes are stated to result in him being honoured by God's speech.[112] The Andalusian Sufi mystic and philosopher, Ibn Arabi wrote about Musa in his book The Bezels of Wisdom dedicating a chapter discussing "the Wisdom of Eminence in the word of Musa". Ibn Arabi considered Musa to be a "fusion" of the infants murdered by the Pharaoh, stating that the spiritual reward which God had chosen for each of the infants manifested in the character of Musa. According to Ibn Arabi, Musa was from birth an "amalgam" of younger spirits acting on older ones.[119] Ibn Arabi considered the ark to be the personification of his humanity while the water of the river Nile to signifiy his imagination, rational thought and sense perception.[120]
During the 20th century the story of Musa's confrontation with Pharaoh has been invoked by Islamists to justify their opposition to “disbelieving” secular regimes and tyrannical rulers. Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966) and Jihad movements in Egypt condemned Jamal Abd al-Nasir (d. 1970) and Anwar al-Sadat (d. 1981), both presidents of Egypt, for being equivalents to the unbelieving Pharaoh who opposed Musa; members of the Jihad Group assassinated al-Sadat for being a disbeliever. During the Iranian revolution of 1978–79, government troops were cautioned not to "Kill Musa [members of the Islamic opposition] for the sake of Pharaoh [the Shah’s regime]."[121]
Appearance
In
The Prophet said, "I saw Moses, Jesus and Abraham (on the night of my Ascension to the heavens). Jesus was of red complexion, curly hair and a broad chest. Moses was of brown complexion, straight hair and tall stature as if he was from the people of
Az-Zutt."— Ibn Umar
According to Ibn ‘Abbaas, Muhammad reported, "On the night of my Ascent to Heaven, I saw Moosa (Moses), who was a tall, brown man..." [Al-Bukhari and Muslim].[123]
Quranic references
Musa is referenced many times in the Quran:
- Appraisals of Musa: 2:136, 4:164, 6:84, 6:154, 7:134, 7:142, 19:51, 20:9, 20:13, 20:36, 20:4, 25:35, 26:1, 26:21, 27:8, 28:7, 28:14, 33:69, 37:114, 37:118, 44:17
- Musa' attributes: 7:150, 20:94, 28:15, 28:19, 28:26
- Musa' prophecy: 7:144, 20:10-24, 26:10, 26:21, 27:7-12, 28:2-35, 28:46, 79:15-19
- The prophet whom God spoke to: 2:253, 4:164, 7:143-144, 19:52, 20:11-24, 20:83-84, 26:10-16, 27:8-11, 28:30-35, 28:46, 79:16-19
- The Torah: 2:41-44, 2:53, 2:87, 3:3, 3:48, 3:50, 3:65, 3:93, 5:43-46, 5:66-68, 5:110, 6:91, 6:154-157, 7:145, 7:154-157, 9:111, 11:110, 17:2, 21:48, 23:49, 25:3, 28:43, 32:23, 37:117, 40:53, 41:45, 46:12, 48:29, 53:36, 61:6, 62:5, 87:19
- The valley: 20:12, 20:20, 28:30, 79:16
- Musa' miracle: 2:56, 2:60, 2:92, 2:211, 7:107-108, 7:117-120, 7:160, 11:96, 17:101, 20:17-22, 20:69, 20:77, 26:30-33, 26:45, 26:63, 27:10-12, 27:12, 28:31-32, 40:23, 40:28, 43:46, 44:19, 44:33, 51:38, 79:20
- Musa and the Pharaoh
- Musa' life inside the palace: 20:38-39, 26:18, 28:8-12
- Returned to his mother: 20:4, 28:12-13
- God's revelation to Musa' mother: 20:38-39, 28:7-10
- Musa' preaching: 7:103-129, 10:84, 20:24, 20:42-51, 23:45, 26:10-22, 28:3, 43:46, 44:18, 51:38, 73:15-17
- Musa met the Pharaoh: 20:58-59, 20:64-66, 26:38-44
- The Pharaoh's magicians: 7:111-116, 10:79-80, 20:60-64, 26:37-44
- Musa vs. the magicians: 7:115-122, 10:80-81, 20:61-70, 26:43-48
- Dispute among the magicians: 20:62, 26:44-47
- Musa warned the magicians: 10:81, 20:61
- Musa and Harun were suspected to be magicians too: 7:109, 7:132, 10:7-77, 17:101, 20:63, 40:24, 43:49
- Belief of the magicians: 7:119-126, 20:70-73, 26:46
- The belief of Asiya: 66:11
- Trial to Pharaoh's family: 7:130-135
- Pharaoh's weakness: 7:103-126, 10:75, 11:97-98, 17:102, 20:51-71, 23:46-47, 25:36, 26:11, 26:23-49, 28:36-39, 29:39, 38:12, 40:24-37, 43:51-54, 44:17-22, 50:13, 51:39, 54:41-42, 69:9, 73:16, 79:21-24
- Musa and his followers went away: 20:77, 26:52-63, 44:23-24
- Musa and his followers were safe: 2:50, 7:138, 10:90, 17:103, 20:78-80, 26:65, 37:115-116, 44:30-31
- Pharaoh's belief was too late: 10:90
- Pharaoh's and his army: 2:50, 3:11, 7:136-137, 8:52-54, 10:88-92, 17:103, 20:78-79, 23:48, 25:36, 26:64-66, 28:40, 29:40, 40:45, 43:55-56, 44:24-29, 51:40, 54:42, 69:10, 73:16, 79:25, 85:17-18, 89:13
- Believer among Pharaoh's family: 40:28-45
- The Pharaoh punished the Israelites: 2:49, 7:124-141, 10:83, 14:6, 20:71, 26:22, 26:49, 28:4, 40:25
- The Pharaohs and Haman were among the rejected: 10:83, 11:97, 28:4-8, 28:32, 28:42, 29:39, 40:36, 44:31
- Musa killed an Egyptian: 20:40, 26:19-21, 28:15-19, 28:33
- Musa' journey to Median
- The people who insulted Musa: 33:69
- Travel to the Promised Land
- The Israelites entered the Promised Land: 2:58, 5:21-23,
- Musa' dialogue with God: 2:51, 7:142-143, 7:155, 20:83-84
- The Israelites worshipped the calf: 2:51-54, 2:92-93, 4:153, 7:148-152, 20:85-92
- Seven Israelites with Musa met God: 7:155
- Musa and Samiri: 20:95-97
- God manifested himself to the mountain: 7:143
- Refusal of the Israelites: 2:246-249, 3:111, 5:22-24, 59:14
- Attributes of the Israelites: 2:41-44, 2:55-59, 2:61-71, 2:74-76, 2:83, 2:93-6, 2:100-101, 2:104, 2:108, 2:140-142, 2:246-249, 3:24, 3:71, 3:75, 3:112, 3:181, 3:183, 4:44, 4:46-47, 4:49, 4:51, 4:53-54, 4:153, 4:155-156, 4:161, 5:13, 5:20, 5:24, 5:42-43, 5:57-58, 5:62-64, 5:70, 5:79-82, 7:134, 7:138-139, 7:149, 7:160, 7:162-163, 7:169, 9:30, 9:34, 16:118, 17:4, 17:101, 20:85-87, 20:92, 58:8, 59:14
- Musa and Khidir: 18:60-82
- Qarun: 28:76-82, 29:39-40
See also
- Aaron
- Amram
- Burning bush
- Biblical and Quranic narratives § Moses (Mūsā)
- Jochebed
- Miriam
- Moses in Judeo-Hellenistic literature
- Moses in rabbinic literature
- Prophets and messengers in Islam
- Scrolls of Moses
- Ten Commandments
- Torah in Islam
References
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- ^ Ltd, Hymns Ancient Modern (May 1996). Third Way (magazine). p. 18. Archived from the original on 17 June 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
- ^ Annabel Keeler, "Moses from a Muslim Perspective", in: Solomon, Norman; Harries, Richard; Winter, Tim (eds.), Abraham's Muslims in conversation Archived 29 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, T&T Clark Publ. (2005), pp. 55–66.
- ^ Sahih Muslim, 1:309, 1:314
- ^ "Shadia: From 50 prayers a day to five". Daily Pilot. 28 June 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
- ^ Stacey, Aisha (16 June 2008). "The Night Journey and the Ascension (part 5 of 6): In the Presence of God". www.islamreligion.com. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
- ISBN 9780826495501. Archivedfrom the original on 27 May 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
- ^ H. Isaacs, Ronald. "The Ten Commandments". My Jewish Learning. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
- ^ "The Ten Commandments - Nature of God in Christianity - GCSE Religious Studies Revision - OCR". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
- .
Three views, based on source analysis or historical-critical method, seem to prevail among biblical scholars. First, a number of scholars, such as Meyer and Holscher, aim to deprive Moses all the prerogatives attributed to him by denying anything historical value about his person or the role he played in Israelite religion. Second, other scholars,.... diametrically oppose the first view and strive to anchor Moses the decisive role he played in Israelite religion in a firm setting. And third, those who take the middle position... delineate the solidly historical identification of Moses from the superstructure of later legendary accretions….Needless to say, these issues are hotly debated unresolved matters among scholars. Thus, the attempt to separate the historical from unhistorical elements in the Torah has yielded few, if any, positive results regarding the figure of Moses or the role he played on Israelite religion. No wonder J. Van Seters concluded that "the quest for the historical Moses is a futile exercise. He now belongs only to legend
- ISBN 978-0-8028-2126-3.
A Moses-like figure may have existed somewhere in southern Transjordan in the mid-late 13th century s.c., where many scholars think the biblical traditions concerning the god Yahweh arose.
- ^ Beegle, Dewey (23 October 2023). "Moses". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ "Moses". Oxford Biblical Studies Online.
- ISBN 978-90-04-25854-9.
Van Seters concluded, 'The quest for the historical Moses is a futile exercise. He now belongs only to legend.' ... "None of this means that there is not a historical Moses and that the tales do not include historical information. But in the Pentateuch, history has become memorial. Memorial revises history, reifies memory, and makes myth out of history.
- ^ Stories of the Prophets, Ibn Kathir, The Story of Moses, c. 1350 C.E.
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