Mosquito control

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For the 1998 Isis album, see The Mosquito Control EP.

Mosquitoes are generally considered annoying and some species transmit diseases, thus leading to a variety of human efforts to eradicate or reduce their presence.

Mosquito control manages the population of mosquitoes to reduce their damage to human health, economies, and enjoyment. Mosquito control is a vital public-health practice throughout the world and especially in the tropics because mosquitoes spread many diseases, such as malaria and the Zika virus.

Mosquito-control operations are targeted to multiple problems:

Disease organisms transmitted by mosquitoes include

Murray Valley encephalitis in Australia. Vertical transmission from adult mosquitos to larvae is possible.[1]

Depending on the situation, source reduction, biocontrol,

Conservation Areas
.

Integrated pest management (IPM) is the use of the most environmentally appropriate method or combination of methods to control pest populations. Typical mosquito-control programs using IPM first conduct surveys, in order to determine the species composition, relative abundance and seasonal distribution of adult and larval mosquitoes, and only then is a control strategy defined.

Monitoring mosquito populations

Adult mosquito populations may be monitored by landing rate counts, mechanical traps or by,

octenol) to attract adult female mosquitoes. These cues are often used in combination. Entomology lidar detection has the possibility of showing the difference between male and female mosquitoes.[2]

Monitoring larval mosquito populations involves collecting larvae from standing water with a dipper or a

pupae, and species are noted for each collection. An alternative method works by providing artificial breeding spots (ovitraps) and collecting and counting the developing larvae at fixed intervals.[4] Monitoring these mosquito populations is crucial to see what species are present, if mosquito numbers are rising or falling, and detecting any diseases they carry.[4]

Mosquito Alert is a cooperative citizen science project, currently run as a non-profit and coordinated by four public research centers in Spain.[5] The aim of the project is to study, monitor, and fight the spread of invasive mosquitos.[6] The project provided the first detection of the Asian bush mosquito Aedes japonicus in Spain in 2018, providing the first report of a population of mosquitos that were located 1,300 km from their previously nearest known location in Europe.[7]

Mechanical control

Mechanical control is the management and control using physical means.

Source reduction

Since many mosquitoes breed in

developing world where water cannot be readily replaced due to irregular water supply. Many individuals also believe mosquito control is the government's responsibility, so if these methods are not done regularly by homeowners then the effectiveness is reduced.[9]

Open water marsh management (OWMM) involves the use of shallow ditches, to create a network of water flow within marshes and to connect the marsh to a pond or canal. The network of ditches drains the mosquito habitat and lets in fish which will feed on mosquito larvae. This reduces the need for other control methods such as pesticides. Simply giving the predators access to the mosquito larvae can result in long-term mosquito control.[10] Open-water marsh management is used on both the eastern and western coasts of the United States.[citation needed]

Rotational impoundment management (RIM) involves the use of large pumps and culverts with gates to control the water level within an impounded marsh. RIM allows mosquito control to occur while still permitting the marsh to function in a state as close to its natural condition as possible. Water is pumped into the marsh in the late spring and summer to prevent the female mosquito from laying her eggs on the soil. The marsh is allowed to drain in the fall, winter, and early spring. Gates in the culverts are used to permit fish, crustaceans, and other marsh organisms to enter and exit the marsh. RIM allows the mosquito-control goals to be met while at the same time reducing the need for pesticide use within the marsh. Rotational impoundment management is used to a great extent on the east coast of Florida.[11]

A 2019 study also explored the idea of using

disease vectors such as Ny. darlingi are most likely to breed.[12]

Oil drip

An oil drip can or oil drip barrel was a common and nontoxic anti-mosquito measure.[13][14][15][16][17][18] The thin layer of oil on top of the water prevents mosquito breeding in two ways:[19] mosquito larvae in the water cannot penetrate the oil film with their breathing tube, and so drown and die; also adult mosquitoes do not lay eggs on the oiled water.

Mosquito traps

light trap
that attracts and captures mosquitoes.

A traditional approach to controlling mosquito populations is the use of ovitraps or lethal ovitraps, which provide artificial breeding spots for mosquitoes to lay their eggs. While ovitraps only trap eggs, lethal ovitraps usually contain a chemical inside the trap that is used to kill the adult mosquito and/or the larvae in the trap. Studies have shown that with enough of these lethal ovitraps, Aedes mosquito populations can be controlled.[20] A recent approach is the automatic lethal ovitrap, which works like a traditional ovitrap but automates all steps needed to provide the breeding spots and to destroy the developing larvae.[21]

In 2016 researchers from Laurentian University released a design for a low cost trap called an Ovillanta which consists of attractant-laced water in a section of discarded rubber tire. At regular intervals the water is run through a filter to remove any deposited eggs and larva. The water, which then contains an 'oviposition' pheromone deposited during egg-laying, is reused to attract more mosquitoes. Two studies have shown that this type of trap can attract about seven times as many mosquito eggs as a conventional ovitrap.[22][23][24][25]

Some newer mosquito traps or known mosquito attractants emit a plume of carbon dioxide together with other mosquito attractants such as sugary scents,

octenol, warmth, water vapor and sounds.[26]
By mimicking a mammal's scent and outputs, the trap draws female mosquitoes toward it, where they are typically sucked into a net or holder by an electric fan where they are collected. According to the American Mosquito Control Association, the trap will kill some mosquitoes, but their effectiveness in any particular case will depend on a number of factors such as the size and species of the mosquito population and the type and location of the breeding habitat. They are useful in specimen collection studies to determine the types of mosquitoes prevalent in an area but are typically far too inefficient to be useful in reducing mosquito populations.

Trap larva

This is a process of achieving sustainable mosquito control in an eco friendly manner by providing artificial breeding grounds with an ovitrap[27] or an ovillanta[28] utilizing common household utensils and destroying larvae by non-hazardous natural means such as throwing them in dry places or feeding them to larvae eating fishes like Gambusia affinis, or suffocating them by spreading a thin plastic sheet over the entire water surface to block atmospheric air. Shifting the water with larvae to another vessel and pouring a few drops of kerosene oil or insecticide/larvicide in it is another option for killing wrigglers, but not preferred due to its environmental impact. Most of the ornamental fishes eat mosquito larvae.[citation needed]

Chemical control

Chemical control is the management and control using chemical means.

Larviciding

Control of larvae can be accomplished through use of contact poisons, growth regulators, surface films, stomach poisons (including bacterial agents), and biological agents such as fungi, nematodes, copepods, and fish.

temephos
, a sand granular insecticide is used to treat water infected with disease carrying insects.

It is believed by some researchers that the larvae of Anopheles gambiae (important vectors of malaria) can survive for several days on moist mud, and that treatments should therefore include mud and soil several meters from puddles.[30]

Adulticiding

Control of adult mosquitoes is the most familiar aspect of mosquito control to most of the public. It is accomplished by ground-based applications or via aerial application[31] of residual chemical insecticides such as Duet. Generally modern mosquito-control programs in developed countries use low-volume applications of insecticides, although some programs may still use thermal fogging. Beside fogging there are some other insect repellents for indoors and outdoors. An example of a synthetic insect repellent is DEET. A naturally occurring repellent is citronella. Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) is another method of adulticide. Walls of properties are sprayed with an insecticide, the mosquitoes die when they land on the surface covered in insecticide.[32]

To control adult mosquitoes in India, van mounted fogging machines and hand fogging machines are used.[33][34][35]

  • Anti-mosquito fogging operation in India
    Anti-mosquito fogging operation in India
  • A mosquito repellent vaporizer containing Prallethrin
    A mosquito repellent vaporizer containing Prallethrin
  • A mosquito coil
    A mosquito coil
  • Indoor residual spraying in Kenya
    Indoor residual spraying in Kenya
  • Walls on IRS-treated bathroom on the shores of Lake Victoria. The mosquitoes remain on the wall until they fall down dead on the floor.
    Walls on IRS-treated bathroom on the shores of Lake Victoria. The mosquitoes remain on the wall until they fall down dead on the floor.
  • In 1958, the National Malaria Eradication Program implemented the wide-scale use of DDT for mosquito control.
    In 1958, the National Malaria Eradication Program implemented the wide-scale use of DDT for mosquito control.

Use of DDT

Main article: DDT

DDT was formerly used throughout the world for large area mosquito control, but it is now banned in most developed countries.[36]

Controversially, DDT remains in common use in many developing countries (14 countries were reported to be using it in 2009[36]), which claim that the public-health cost of switching to other control methods would exceed the harm caused by using DDT. It is sometimes approved for use only in specific, limited circumstances where it is most effective, such as application to walls.[citation needed]

The role of DDT in combating mosquitoes has been the subject of considerable controversy. Although DDT has been proven to affect biodiversity and cause eggshell thinning in birds such as the bald eagle, some say that DDT is the most effective weapon in combating mosquitoes, and hence malaria. While some of this disagreement is based on differences in the extent to which disease control is valued as opposed to the value of biodiversity,[citation needed] there is also genuine disagreement amongst experts about the costs and benefits of using DDT.[dubious – discuss]

Notwithstanding, DDT-resistant mosquitoes have started to increase in numbers, especially in tropics due to mutations, reducing the effectiveness of this chemical; these mutations can rapidly spread over vast areas if pesticides are applied indiscriminately (Chevillon et al. 1999). In areas where DDT resistance is encountered, malathion, propoxur or lindane is used.

Toxicant Dosage in g/m2 Average duration of effectiveness in months
DDT 1 to 2 6 to 12
Lindane 0.5 3
Malathion 2 3
Propoxur 2 3

Biological control

Biological control is the management and control using biological means.

Natural predation

Gambusia affinis
(Mosquitofish), a natural mosquito predator.
A Hygieostatic Bat Roost, custom-built to house bats for biocontrol of mosquitos

cyprinids (carps and minnows) and killifish. Tilapia also consume mosquito larvae.[37] Direct introduction of tilapia and mosquitofish into ecosystems around the world have had disastrous consequences.[38] However, utilizing a controlled system via aquaponics
provides the mosquito control without the adverse effects to the ecosystem.

Other predators include dragonfly (fly)

fungi.[41]
Predators such as birds, bats, lizards, and frogs have been used, but their effectiveness is only anecdotal.

Biocides

Instead of chemical insecticides, some researchers are studying biocides. Like all animals, mosquitoes are subject to disease. Invertebrate pathologists study these diseases in the hope that some of them can be utilized for mosquito management. Microbial pathogens of mosquitoes include viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes and microsporidia.[42][page needed][43]

Most notably, scientists in

Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana.[48]

Dead spores of the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, especially Bt israelensis (BTI) interfere with dipteran larval digestive systems. It can be dispersed by hand or dropped by helicopter in large areas. BTI loses effectiveness after the larvae turn into pupae, because they stop eating.[citation needed] BTI was reported to be widely applied in West Africa with limited adverse effects, and may pose lesser risk than chemical pesticides.[49]

Wolbachia method

In the Wolbachia method,[50] both male and female mosquitos that carry the Wolbachia bacterium are released into natural populations.[51] Wolbachia boosts the natural immune response of the mosquito so that it does not easily get infected and become a host vector for mosquito-borne diseases.[52] Therefore it is unable to easily transmit those viruses to people. This is known as replacement strategy as it aims to replace the natural population with Wolbachia-carrying ones.[53] Since 2011, the World Mosquito Program has conducted several trials and projects, in 14 countries across Asia, Latin America and Oceania.

Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT)

This approach also uses Wolbachia but involves the release of only male mosquitos that carry the Wolbachia bacterium. When these male mosquitos mate with wild female mosquitos, her eggs do not hatch due to lack of biocompatibility.[54] Wolbachia is not endemic to wild mosquito populations although it is endemic in 50% of all insect species.[55] This is known as suppression strategy as it aims to suppress the natural reproduction cycle.[56] Wolbachia-Aedes suppression has been piloted in various countries such as Myanmar (1967), French Polynesia (2009, 2012), USA (2014-2016, 2018), Thailand (2016), Australia (2017), Singapore (since 2016) and Puerto Rico (2020).[57]

Projects

Maui and Kuai, Hawaii - A series of IIT projects were planned to protect endangered bird species from avian malaria. The projects involve the release of large numbers of male mosquitos infected with a strain of Wolbachia that is incompatible with the strain carried by resident females. These mosquitos would not be irradiated or subject to genetic modification.[58]

Sterile Insect Technique (SIT)

Introducing large numbers of sterile males is another approach to reducing mosquito numbers. This is called Sterile Insect Technique (SIT).[59] Radiation is used to disrupt DNA in the mosquitoes and randomly create mutations. Males with mutations that disrupt their fertility are selected and released in mass into the wild population. These sterile males mate with wild type females and no offspring is produced, reducing the population size.[60]

Projects

Guangzhou, China - A combination of SIT with IIT, were used in a mosquito control program in Guangzhou, China. The pilot trial was carried out with the support of the IAEA in cooperation with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The pilot demonstrated the successful near-elimination of field populations of the world's most invasive mosquito species, Aedes albopictus (Asian tiger mosquito). The two-year trial (2016–2017) covered a 32.5-hectare area on two relatively isolated islands in the Pearl River in Guangzhou. It involved the release of about 200 million irradiated mass-reared adult male mosquitoes exposed to Wolbachia bacteria.[61]

Genetic modification

These techniques share the characteristic of introducing lethal genes and reducing the size of the mosquito population over time.

Growth inhibition

Another control approach under investigation for

genetically modified to require the antibiotic tetracycline to develop beyond the larval stage. Modified males develop normally in a nursery while they are supplied with this chemical and can be released into the wild. However, their subsequent offspring will lack tetracycline in the wild and never mature.[62] Field trials were conducted in the Cayman Islands, Malaysia and Brazil to control the mosquitoes that cause dengue fever. In April 2014, Brazil's National Technical Commission for Biosecurity approved the commercial release of the modified mosquito.[63][64] The FDA is the lead agency for regulating genetically-engineered mosquitoes in the United States.[65]
In 2014 and 2018 research was reported into other genetic methods including cytoplasmic incompatibility, chromosomal translocations, sex distortion and gene replacement.[66] Although several years away from the field trial stage, if successful these other methods have the potential to be cheaper and to eradicate the Aedes aegypti mosquito more efficiently.[67]

A pioneering experimental demonstration of the gene drive method eradicated small populations of Anopheles gambiae.[68][69]

In 2020, Oxitec's non-biting Friendly Aedes aegypti mosquito was approved for release by the US EPA and Florida state authorities.[70]

Projects

Malaysia - In several experiments, researchers released batches of male adult Aedes mosquitos with genetic modifications to study the effects of dispersal and reproduction in natural populations. Mosquito traps were ultilized for the purpose of these studies.[71] The process allowed for the opportunity to determine which mosquitoes were affected, and provided a group to be re-released with genetic modifications resulting in the OX513A variant to reduce reproduction. Adult mosquitoes are attracted inside the traps where they died of dehydration.

Factor EOF1

Research is being conducted that indicates that dismantling a protein associated with eggshell organization, factor EOF1 (factor 1), which may be unique to mosquitoes, may be a means to hamper their reproduction effectively in the wild without creating a resistant population or affecting other animals.[72][73]

Legal measures

In Singapore, under the Control of Vectors and Pesticides Act there a legal duty on occupiers to prevent Aedes mosquitos from breeding in their homes. If breeding mosquitos are found by inspectors, occupiers are subject to a fine of 5,000 Singapore dollars or imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 months or both.[74]

Proposals to eradicate mosquitoes

Some biologists have proposed the deliberate extinction of certain mosquito species. Biologist

developing nations who will be infected with acute illnesses each year. Although trials are ongoing, she writes that if they fail: "We should consider the ultimate swatting."[75]

Biologist E. O. Wilson has advocated the extinction of several species of mosquito, including malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Wilson stated, "I'm talking about a very small number of species that have co-evolved with us and are preying on humans, so it would certainly be acceptable to remove them. I believe it's just common sense."[76]

Insect ecologist Steven Juliano has argued that "it's difficult to see what the downside would be to removal, except for collateral damage". Entomologist Joe Conlon stated that "If we eradicated them tomorrow, the ecosystems where they are active will hiccup and then get on with life. Something better or worse would take over."[77]

However, David Quammen has pointed out that mosquitoes protect forests from human exploitation and may act as competitors for other insects.[78] In terms of malaria control, if populations of mosquitoes were temporarily reduced to zero in a region, then this would exterminate malaria, and the mosquito population could then be allowed to rebound.[79]

See also

Citations

  1. PMID 26047186
    .
  2. ^
    S2CID 4927282
    .
  3. PMID 24739334
    .
  4. ^
    PMID 34710083
    .
  5. ^ ssn_admin. "What is Mosquito Alert". Mosquito Alert. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
  6. PMID 29066710
    .
  7. ^ Segura, Cristian (17 June 2020). "The new invasive mosquito species spreading 'like an oil stain' in Spain". EL PAÍS English. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
  8. PMID 25255027
    .
  9. PMID 28257079
    .
  10. ^ "Chapter 4: Mosquito Control Through Source Reduction". Florida Mosquito Control (White Paper). Florida Coordinating Council on Mosquito Control. Archived from the original on 28 October 2008.
  11. PMID 27690112
    .
  12. PMID 30653491
    .
  13. ^ Haskin, Frederic Jennings (1914). The Panama Canal. Doubleday, Page. pp. 114–.
  14. ^ "1311631. An oil drip can operates in a creek to prevent mosquito breeding". National Geographic Creative. Archived from the original on 29 January 2013.
  15. ISSN 0032-4558
    .
  16. ^ "HireKill Cyprus - Services - Aquatain Mosquito Control Eco Friendly". hirekill.com. Archived from the original on 7 November 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
  17. ^ "Management of Malaria". vlib.us.
  18. ^ Adjusting an oil drip-can over a New Guinea stream during World War II.
  19. JSTOR 4571997
    .
  20. PMID 21805450
    .
  21. PMID 16113880
    .
  22. ^ Gignac, Julien (8 April 2016). "Canadian researcher's mosquito trap offers hope in fight against Zika spread". The Globe and Mail.
  23. ^ Yang, Jennifer (7 April 2016). "A Canadian team is testing a $4 hack to solve the Zika crisis". Toronto Star.
  24. ^ "How this Canadian-designed mosquito trap could help fight Zika virus". CBC Radio: As it Happens. 7 April 2016.
  25. ^ Roth, Amanda (7 April 2016). "How Canadian Scientists Plan to Fight Zika With Old Tires and Milk". Motherboard.
  26. PMID 20126628
    .
  27. ^ "Controlling Dengue Outbreaks". Nature. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
  28. ^ "New way to trap, kill mosquito eggs may help fight Zika- News Nation". News Nation. 10 April 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
  29. S2CID 30524896
    .
  30. ^ "Mosquito 'factories' to fight malaria". New Scientist. 23–30 December 2006. p. 7. The article quotes Jim Miller of Michigan State University.
  31. ^ "Aerial spraying planned in eight Orange County cities in battle to control West Nile virus; Vector Control says it's safe". The Orange County Register. 4 September 2015.
  32. PMID 27965266
    .
  33. ^ Special Correspondent (15 June 2012). "Intensive anti-mosquito fogging operation launched by civic body". The Hindu. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
  34. ^ Staff Reporter (8 November 2012). "Mayor inspects anti-mosquito operations". The Hindu. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
  35. ^ Madhavan, Karthik (5 December 2012). "Civic body's mosquito control measures only on paper". The Hindu. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
  36. ^ a b Cone, Maria (4 May 2009) Should DDT Be Used to Combat Malaria? Scientific American. Retrieved 13 October 2014
  37. ISBN 978-1-55250-313-3. Archived from the original
    on 9 June 2011.
  38. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2007.06.006. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 3 December 2012.
  39. S2CID 26987818
    .
  40. S2CID 7645668
    .
  41. ^ "Chapter 7: Biological and Alternative Control". Florida Mosquito Control (White Paper). Florida Coordinating Council on Mosquito Control. Archived from the original on 1 July 2004.
  42. ISBN 978-0-86598-014-3
    .
  43. ^ Jahn, G.C.; Hall, D.W.; Zam, S.G. (1986). "A comparison of the life cycles of two Amblyospora (Microspora: Amblyosporidae) in the mosquitoes Culex salinarius Coquillett and Culex tarsalis Coquillett" (PDF). Journal of the Florida Anti-Mosquito Association. 57: 24–27.
  44. ^ "Scientists Genetically Modify Fungus To Kill Mosquitoes That Spread Malaria". NPR.org. NPR.
  45. ^ "Transgenic fungus shows huge promise for malaria control in West Africa". Alliance for Science. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  46. ^ Diep, Francie. "Genetically altered fungus designed to attack malaria in mosquitoes". Scientific American. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  47. S2CID 171093096
    .
  48. ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (10 June 2005). "Fungus Fatal to Mosquito May Aid Global War on Malaria". The New York Times.
  49. PMID 21452523
    .
  50. ^ "How our method compares". World Mosquito Program.
  51. PMID 32456036
    .
  52. PMID 32078642
    .
  53. ^ "Wolbachia Innovative Strategy". Wolbachia Malaysia. 25 May 2021.
  54. PMID 26925368
    .
  55. PMID 34442272
    .
  56. S2CID 214809737
    .
  57. ^ "Wolbachia suppression strategy". National Environment Agency. Government of Singapore.
  58. ^ Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources; U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (13 October 2023). "Wildlife Conservation Agencies (State & Federal) Are One Step Closer to Protecting Forest Birds from Mosquito-borne Diseases on Kaua'i". governor.hawaii.gov. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
  59. PMID 19725763
    .
  60. PMID 23994521
    .
  61. ^ "China Uses Nuclear Sterile Insect Technique in Mosquito Control". ABC Live India. 19 July 2019.
  62. ^ Urquhart, Conal (15 July 2012). "Can GM mosquitoes rid the world of a major killer?". The Observer.
  63. ^ Branford, Sue (23 July 2014). "Brazil to unleash GM-mosquito swarms to fight dengue". New Scientist. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
  64. PMID 26963535
    .
  65. ^ "Preliminary Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) In Support of an Investigational Field Trial of OX513A Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes" (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. March 2016. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
  66. ^ Fletcher, Martin (11 August 2018). "Mutant mosquitoes: Can gene editing kill off malaria?". The Telegraph. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
  67. ^ Webb, Jonathan (10 June 2014). "GM lab mosquitoes may aid malaria fight". BBC News. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
  68. PMID 30247490
    .
  69. ^ Milius, Susan (17 December 2018). "Humans wiped out mosquitoes (in one small lab test)". Science News. Retrieved 23 December 2018.
  70. ^ LaMotte, Sandee (19 August 2020). "750 million genetically engineered mosquitoes approved for release in Florida Keys". CNN. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
  71. PMID 22970102. Figure 1
  72. PMID 30620728
    .
  73. ^ Equitativa, Salud (9 January 2019). "GESTIÓN EN SALUD PÚBLICA: Identification and characterization of a mosquito-specific eggshell organizing factor in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes". GESTIÓN EN SALUD PÚBLICA. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  74. ^ "Dengue Inspection". www.nea.gov.sg. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  75. ^ a b Judson, Olivia (25 September 2003). "A Bug's Death". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 July 2006.
  76. ^ "Why a famous biologist wants to eradicate killer mosquitoes". PRI.
  77. ^ Fang, Janet (21 July 2010). "Ecology: A world without mosquitoes". Nature.
  78. ISBN 978-0-393-33360-2
    .
  79. ^ "KILL 'EM ALL". Radiolab.

General references

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mosquito_control&oldid=1212573300"