Mount Edziza volcanic complex
Mount Edziza volcanic complex | |
---|---|
Mount Edziza–Spectrum Range complex | |
Highest point | |
Peak | Mount Edziza[1] |
Elevation | 2,786 m (9,140 ft)[1] |
Coordinates | 57°42′55″N 130°38′04″W / 57.71528°N 130.63444°W[3] |
Dimensions | |
Length | 65 km (40 mi)[4] |
Width | 20 km (12 mi)[4] |
Area | 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi)[1] |
Volume | 670 km3 (160 cu mi)[5] |
Geography | |
Country | |
Volcanic region | Northern Cordilleran Province[13] |
Last eruption | Unknown[14] |
The Mount Edziza volcanic complex (
The MEVC consists of several
Several streams surround the MEVC, many of which drain the flanks of the volcanic complex. They include the
Indigenous peoples have lived adjacent to the MEVC for thousands of years. Historically, the local Tahltan people used volcanic glass from the MEVC to make tools and weaponry. Intermittent geological work has been carried out at the volcanic complex since at least the 1950s, the most detailed studies having been conducted in the 1960s. A large provincial park dominates the MEVC which can only be accessed by aircraft or by a network of footpaths.
Names and etymology
The Mount Edziza volcanic complex is sometimes referred to as the Mount Edziza–Spectrum Range complex or the Mount Edziza Plateau.
Geography and geomorphology
Structure
The
Location
The MEVC is surrounded on the east by the Skeena Mountains and the Klastline Plateau while to the west it is flanked by the Coast Mountains.[23] It lies on the eastern edge of the Tahltan Highland, a southeast-trending upland area extending along the western side of the Stikine Plateau. This upland area lies between the Taku River in the north, the Boundary Ranges in the west and the head of the Iskut River in the east. The width of the Tahltan Highland varies from about 8 kilometres (5.0 miles) in the north to about 48 kilometres (30 miles) in the south where the Stikine River crosses the highland.[24]
The MEVC is in the
Landforms
Four central volcanoes dominate the MEVC, Mount Edziza being the highest with an elevation of 2,786 metres (9,140 feet).[1] It is a large ice-covered stratovolcano rising well above the general level of the Tahltan Highland.[1][24] Ice Peak is a composite stratovolcano 2,500 metres (8,200 feet) in elevation that has been reduced to a steep-walled pyramidal peak with active cirques on all of its sides.[1][28] The Spectrum Range has an elevation of 2,430 metres (7,970 feet) and consists of a nearly circular, more than 10-kilometre-wide (6.2-mile) dome with a thickness of up to 650 metres (2,130 feet).[1][14][29] Armadillo Peak represents the eroded remains of a small caldera whose 2,194-metre (7,198-foot) summit is capped by a 180-metre-thick (590-foot) sequence of ponded lava flows.[1] Various stages of erosion have modified these central volcanoes; in some cases, only a few small remnants of their original surface remain.[28] The degree of erosion becomes less pronounced on those that have more recently formed.[22]
Several cinder cones dotting the plateau surface rise up to 460 metres (1,500 feet) above the surrounding terrain, most of which occur in three lava fields.[20][21][30] The Desolation Lava Field on the northern slope of Mount Edziza contains 10 cinder cones, namely Eve Cone, Storm Cone, Moraine Cone, Williams Cone, Sleet Cone, Twin Cone, Sidas Cone and the three Triplex Cones.[31] Five named cones occur in the Snowshoe Lava Field on the southwestern flank of Ice Peak: Tennena Cone, Keda Cone, Coffee Crater, Cocoa Crater and The Saucer.[30][32] The Ash Pit is the only named cinder cone in the Mess Lake Lava Field which lies at the south-central end of the MEVC.[30] Isolated cinder cones include Icefall Cone and Ridge Cone on the eastern slope of Mount Edziza, Nahta Cone at the extreme southern end of the MEVC, Kana Cone on the extreme northern flank of the MEVC and two unnamed cones in Walkout Creek valley.[33]
The MEVC contains three named subplateaus, the largest and northernmost of which is the Big Raven Plateau.[28] Its dominant feature is Mount Edziza which rises from within the middle of the plateau.[3] Two lava fields are present on the Big Raven Plateau; the Desolation Lava Field at the northern end of the plateau covers more than 150 square kilometres (58 square miles) whereas the Snowshoe Lava Field covers about 40 square kilometres (15 square miles) at the southern end of the plateau.[34] At the northwestern end of the Spectrum Range is the Kitsu Plateau; its dominant feature is the even smaller Mess Lake Lava Field which covers 18 square kilometres (6.9 square miles).[35] The Arctic Lake Plateau is the southernmost of the three subplateaus; it consists of a nearly flat upland containing Outcast Hill, Tadekho Hill, Wetalth Ridge, Nahta Cone, Source Hill, Thaw Hill and Exile Hill.[36]
In the north fork of Tenchen Creek is Cinder Cliff, a 210-metre-high (690-foot) barrier of volcanic rocks.[37] Koosick Bluff and Ornostay Bluff are just southwest of Mount Edziza near the head of Sezill Creek.[38][39][40] Northwest and east of Coffee Crater are Hoia Bluff and Kaia Bluff, respectively. Hoia Bluff is a prominent west-facing cliff while Kaia Bluff is a steep-sided hill.[41][42] On the northwestern side of Raspberry Pass is an isolated, flat-topped hill with steep sides called Gnu Butte.[43] The Mess Creek Escarpment is a long, often cliff-like feature forming the western edge of the MEVC.[28][44] It runs along the eastern side of Mess Creek and exposes thick, flat-lying lava flows.[44][45] Artifact Ridge is a crescent-shaped mountain ridge east of the Kitsu Plateau and just north of Artifact Creek.[8] Just south of Artifact Ridge and Artifact Creek is Obsidian Ridge, a mountain ridge containing high-quality obsidian.[8][46]
Destell Pass is a narrow rock cleft northwest of Artifact Ridge that provides access between the broad upland valleys of Artifact Creek and Raspberry Creek.[47][48] It is one of two named mountain passes in the MEVC, the other being Raspberry Pass between the heads of Bourgeaux Creek and Raspberry Creek.[49][50] Raspberry Pass is a broad east–west valley separating the Spectrum Range in the south from the Mount Edziza area in the north.[7][51]
Lakes
The eastern side of the MEVC is flanked by Mowdade Lake,
Two small lakes are named on the southern portion of the MEVC.[55] At the head of the Little Iskut River is Little Ball Lake, also called Kounugu Lake after the guardian of fresh water in Tahltan folklore.[53][56] It lies immediately south of Kounugu Mountain in the Spectrum Range and east of Ball Creek.[55] Little Arctic Lake lies northeast of Arctic Lake near the northeastern flank of Wetalth Ridge.[57][58]
Drainage
The MEVC is drained on all sides by streams within the Stikine River
To the east, the MEVC overlooks a drainage divide that lies in a broad hummocky lowland.[22] Its upper eastern half is drained by tributaries of Kakiddi Creek.[8][22] This includes Nido Creek, Tenchen Creek and Tennaya Creek which flow to the northeast from the eastern side of Mount Edziza,[8][71][72][73] Shaman Creek and Sorcery Creek which flow to the east and north from near Kaia Bluff[8][74][75] and Tsecha Creek which flows to the northeast from near Williams Cone.[8][76] Shaman Creek contains one named tributary, Chakima Creek, which flows to the east and north.[8][77] The rapidly eroding headwalls and steep spurs on the eastern side of the MEVC have deposited glacial and landslide debris into these tributaries. Transportion of this debris into Kakiddi Valley has produced several large alluvial fans behind which Kakiddi Lake, Mowchilla Lake, Mowdade Lake and Nuttlude Lake have formed.[22]
The lower eastern half and south end of the MEVC are drained by tributaries of the Iskut River.[8][22] This includes Ball Creek which flows to the south from the southeastern side of the Spectrum Range,[8][78] More Creek which flows to the southeast from the southern side of the Spectrum Range[8][79] and the Little Iskut River which flows to the southeast from the southeastern side of the Spectrum Range.[8][80] The only named tributary of Ball Creek is Chachani Creek which flows to the southeast from the eastern end of the Arctic Lake Plateau.[8][81] Tributaries of the Little Iskut River include Stewbomb Creek, which flows eastwards from the eastern side of the Spectrum Range, and Bourgeaux Creek which flows to the east from Raspberry Pass.[8][82][83] The only named tributary of Stewbomb Creek is Artifact Creek which flows to the southeast between Artifact Ridge and Obsidian Ridge.[8][84] Bourgeaux Creek contains one named tributary, Gerlib Creek, which flows southwards from between Tadeda Peak and Armadillo Peak.[8][85] Several small, unnamed streams drain the youthful northern side of the MEVC.[8][22] They flow north into the Klastline River and contain shallowly incised channels.[22]
Climate
The surrounding area is characterized by warm summers and cold, snowy winters; Mount Edziza itself is covered by snow year-round. Temperatures are warmest in mid-summer during the day when they may hit the 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit) range. However, temperatures can drop below freezing during summer nights, making snow or freezing rain a possibility at any time of the year.[7] The closest weather stations to the MEVC are located at Telegraph Creek and Dease Lake, which lie about 40 kilometres (25 miles) to the northwest and 85 kilometres (53 miles) to the northeast, respectively.[20]
Animals and plants
The area between Buckley Lake and Telegraph Creek contains
Glaciation
The MEVC was covered by a regional ice sheet during the Pleistocene which receded and advanced periodically until about 11,000 years ago when deglaciation was essentially complete in a steadily warming climate.[86][87] This warming trend ceased about 2,600 years ago, causing glaciers to advance from Mount Edziza, Ice Peak, the Spectrum Range and the Armadillo Highlands as part of the neoglaciation. As these glaciers advanced they built up to 18-metre-high (59-foot) terminal moraines on the plateau surface which comprise the trim lines of the current mountain glaciers. The present trend towards a more moderate climate put an end to the neoglacial period in the 19th century, resulting in rapid glacial recession throughout the MEVC. This rapid glacial recession is apparent from the lack of vegetation on the barren, rocky ground between the glaciers and their trim lines which are up to 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) apart.[88]
The MEVC has been extensively modified by local and regional glaciations as evidenced by the existence of drumlins and glacial striations, which record ice movement to the north-northwest across the western portion of the plateau.[89] Evidence of ice stagnation is present in the form of outflow channels, eskers, kames, kettles and morainal ridges on the northern side of the MEVC adjacent to Buckley Lake.[52] Deglaciation of unstable and oversteepened valley walls has caused several landslides in the geologic past, especially along the Mess Creek Escarpment. This instability is attributed to the low-yield strength of the highly fractured, poorly consolidated rocks comprising the MEVC.[90]
Most peaks greater than 2,130 metres (6,990 feet) in elevation have glaciers.[90] Small separate glaciers are largely restricted to the southern half of the MEVC where they occur in the Spectrum Range, on Armadillo Peak and elsewhere.[91] In contrast, Mount Edziza and Ice Peak are obscured by a relatively large ice cap that covers an area of 70 square kilometres (27 square miles).[92] The western side of this ice cap is drained by many outlet glaciers that spread in broad lobes onto the Big Raven Plateau whereas the eastern side is drained by distributary glaciers that drape down steep slopes to form discontinuous icefalls.[93]
Five officially named glaciers are situated at the northern and southern ends of the MEVC.[8] Idiji Glacier lies southeast of Mount Edziza on the eastern side of the MEVC.[8][94] At the head of Nagha Creek in the western portion of the Spectrum Range is Nagha Glacier.[8][95] Tenchen Glacier is a debris-covered glacier on the eastern side of Mount Edziza at the head of Tenchen Creek.[8][96] South of Mount Edziza lies Tencho Glacier, the largest glacier of the MEVC.[97] Tennaya Glacier lies at the head of Tennaya Creek on the southeastern side of Mount Edziza.[8][98] The informally named Yeda Glacier existed at the head of Ball Creek south of Yeda Peak in the Spectrum Range in 1988.[99]
Geology
Background
The MEVC is part of the
The MEVC is part of a subdivision of the NCVP called the Stikine Subprovince. This subprovince, confined to the Stikine region of northwestern British Columbia, includes three other volcanic complexes: Heart Peaks, Hoodoo Mountain and Level Mountain. The four complexes differ petrologically and/or volumetrically from the rest of the NCVP. Heart Peaks, Level Mountain and the MEVC are the largest NCVP centres by volume, the latter two having experienced volcanism for a much longer timespan than any other NCVP centre. Level Mountain, Hoodoo Mountain and the MEVC are the only NCVP centres that contain volcanic rocks of both mafic and intermediate to felsic[b] composition.[2] The highest of the four complexes is the MEVC at 2,786 metres (9,140 feet), followed by Level Mountain at 2,164 metres (7,100 feet), Heart Peaks at 2,012 metres (6,601 feet) and Hoodoo Mountain at 1,850 metres (6,070 feet).[1][104][105][106]
Composition
The most voluminous rocks comprising the MEVC are mafic
Basement
Faulting
The MEVC lies on the eastern shoulder of Mess Creek valley, a long and narrow graben-like depression possibly linked to volcanism of the volcanic complex. The eastern edge of the valley is bounded by north-trending faults, one of which has been traced for more than 24 kilometres (15 miles). This fault shows signs of having been active contemporaneously with volcanism of the MEVC; it has vertically displaced Holocene basalt flows by 15 to 20 metres (50 to 70 feet) and older basalt flows by 91 to 122 metres (299 to 400 feet), such that the western side of the fault has moved downward. The downthrowing of this fault during the Holocene may have been due to the draining of magma chambers following eruptions at the MEVC.[113]
The existence of peralkaline rocks at the MEVC and the presence of normal faults along Mess Creek valley support the conclusion that the MEVC lies in an area of continental rifting.[113][114] Many tufa terraces along the fault zone contain pressure ridges 10 to 40 centimetres (3.9 to 15.7 inches) high and 50 to 100 metres (160 to 330 feet) long, suggesting these faults are still active. This was confirmed by a local trapper in 1992 who noted that new pressure ridges appeared each year.[115]
Subdivisions
The MEVC was originally subdivided into 15 geological formations, two of which are no longer used:[116][117][118]
Current | |||
---|---|---|---|
Name | Lithology | Volcanology | |
Big Raven Formation[119] | Alkali basalt, hawaiite, trachyte[119] | Volcanic cones, lava flows, air-fall tephra[119] | |
Kakiddi Formation[120] | Trachyte[121] | Lava flows, pyroclastic rocks[120] | |
Klastline Formation[122] | Alkali basalt[121] | Volcanic cones, lava flows[123] | |
Arctic Lake Formation[124] | Alkali basalt[121] | Volcanic cones, subglacial volcanoes, lava flows[125] | |
Edziza Formation[126] | Trachyte[121] | Stratovolcano, lava domes, lava flows[126] | |
Pillow Ridge Formation[127] | Alkali basalt[121] | Subglacial volcanoes[128] | |
Ice Peak Formation[129] | Alkali basalt, hawaiite, mugearite, benmoreite, trachyte[121] | Volcanic cones, shield volcanoes, lava domes[130] | |
Pyramid Formation[131] | Trachyte, comendite, pantellerite[121] | Lava domes, lava flows[131] | |
Spectrum Formation[29] | Trachyte, comendite, rhyolite[121] | Lava dome[29] | |
Nido Formation[132] | Alkali basalt, hawaiite[121] | Shield volcanoes, lava flows[133] | |
Armadillo Formation[134] | Alkali basalt, comendite, trachyte[121] | Caldera, lava domes, lava flows[134] | |
Little Iskut Formation[135] | Trachybasalt[121] | Shield volcano, lava flows[135] | |
Raspberry Formation[136] | Alkali basalt, hawaiite[121] | Shield volcano, lava flows[136] | |
Former | |||
Name | Lithology | Notes | |
Sheep Track Formation[137]
|
Trachyte[121] | Reassigned as a member of the Big Raven Formation.[138]
| |
Kounugu Formation[139] | Alkali basalt, hawaiite[118] | Reassigned as a member of the Nido Formation.[140] |
Volcanism
The MEVC is a highly active volcanic system with a nearly continuous record of activity dating from the
Five cycles of magmatic activity created the MEVC; one in the Miocene, one in the
Eruptions have occurred
Hydrothermal activity
The MEVC is volcanically
The
Hazards and monitoring
Like other volcanic complexes in Canada, the MEVC is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain its activity level. The Canadian National Seismograph Network has been established to monitor earthquakes throughout Canada, but it is too far away to provide an accurate indication of activity under the complex. It may sense an increase in seismic activity if the MEVC becomes highly restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption; the system might detect activity only once the complex has started erupting.[160] If the MEVC were to erupt, mechanisms exist to orchestrate relief efforts. The Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan was created to outline the notification procedure of some of the main agencies that would respond to an erupting volcano in Canada, an eruption close to the Canada–United States border or any eruption that would affect Canada.[161]
Human history
Indigenous peoples
The MEVC lies within the traditional territory of the Tahltan people which covers an area of more than 93,500 square kilometres (36,100 square miles).
The MEVC continues to be an important cultural resource for the Tahltan people. In 2021, Chad Norman Day, president of the Tahltan Central Government, said "Mount Edziza and the surrounding area has always been sacred to the Tahltan Nation. The obsidian from this portion of our territory provided us with weaponry, tools and trading goods that ensured our Tahltan people could thrive for thousands of years."[164]
Telegraphy
Along the western side of the MEVC and through its central portion at Raspberry Pass are the remains of the Yukon Telegraph Line.[7][23] This was a nearly 3,000-kilometre-long (1,900-mile) telegraphy system built by the Dominion Government Telegraph Service between 1897 and 1901 to send messages between Ashcroft, British Columbia in the south to Dawson City, Yukon in the north. A trail built to serve the line extended along much of its length and provided a route to the Yukon gold fields.[165]
Log cabins housing two men were built every 32 kilometres (20 miles) along the Yukon Telegraph Trail for maintenance.[7][165] One of these maintenance cabins existed at Raspberry Creek in the central portion of the MEVC.[166] The Yukon Telegraph Line and trail were maintained until 1936 when they were abandoned with the advent of radio communication.[165] Remnants of this telegraphy system include collapsed cabins, telegraph wire and a few telegraph poles.[7][165]
Geological studies
The MEVC is one of the best-studied volcanic centres in the NCVP.
A three-month period of earthquake monitoring was conducted at the MEVC in 1968 after
By 1970, Souther and his assistant Maurice Lambert had established that episodic eruptions of alkali basalt and silicic peralkaline lavas had taken place at the MEVC over a timespan of at least 10 million years. They had also established that volcanism of the MEVC was accompanied by east–west extension and incipient rifting of Earth's crust.[167] In 1974, Souther and Japanese volcanologist Kenzō Yagi conducted a study of aenigmatite crystals which occur in peralkaline rocks of the MEVC.[6][170] Yagi Ridge in the Spectrum Range was named in honour of Kenzō Yagi who traversed this ridge with Souther during their geological studies.[8][170] During his last year of serious field work in 1992, Souther published an extensive bulletin on his work entitled The Late Cenozoic Mount Edziza Volcanic Complex, British Columbia which highlighted the importance and size of the MEVC.[4][167][171] The volcanic complex has since received very few geological studies.[172][173]
A three-year period of field studies conducted at the MEVC around 2007 focused on using volcano-ice interactions to constrain
Protected areas
Much of the MEVC was designated as a provincial park in 1972 to showcase its geological and geothermal features.[7][20] A 101,171-hectare (250,000-acre) recreation area surrounding the 132,000-hectare (330,000-acre) park was also established in 1972.[175][176] In 1989, Mount Edziza Provincial Park roughly doubled in size when 96,770 hectares (239,100 acres) was annexed from the Mount Edziza Recreation Area.[176] In doing so, the recreation area was greatly reduced in size to around 4,000 hectares (9,900 acres); it was eventually disestablished in 2003.[175] Mount Edziza Provincial Park now covers an area of 266,180 hectares (657,700 acres), making it one of the largest provincial parks in British Columbia.[7][177]
In 2021, an approximately 3,528-hectare (8,720-acre)
Recreation
The MEVC offers many recreational activities, including mountain climbing, camping, fishing, hunting, horseback riding, wildlife viewing, photography, hiking and backpacking. Buckley Lake and Mowdade Lake on the northern and eastern sides of the MEVC contain campsites with fire rings, bear-proof metal food caches and backcountry-style toilets. It is advised by BC Parks to not gather wood for campfires within Mount Edziza Provincial Park to help maintain a healthy ecosystem community. The optimum time for backpacking is generally between July 1 and September 15 when weather conditions are the most suitable.[7]
Kakiddi Lake, Mowchilla Lake, Mowdade Lake, Nuttlude Lake and Buckley Lake are well populated with rainbow trout and offer fishing at the MEVC. A limited entry hunting authorization is required for the hunting of mountain goats, mountain sheep and caribou within Mount Edziza Provincial Park. Horseback riding at the MEVC requires a letter of authorization. The many cinder cones dotting the MEVC have designated climbing routes to prevent scarring on their delicate surfaces from foot traffic.[7]
A hiking trail dubbed the Buckley Lake to Mowdade Lake Route extends across the northern half of the MEVC.[55][181] It traverses south from Buckley Lake along Buckley Creek and gradually climbs onto the MEVC plateau where Eve Cone, Sidas Cone and Tsekone Ridge are visible along the route. Most of the Buckley Lake to Mowdade Lake Route is marked by a series of rock cairns from Tsekone Ridge onwards.[181]
The distance between Buckley Lake and Mowdade Lake is about 70 kilometres (43 miles) but the hiking length between these two lakes varies depending on the route taken; it can take a minimum of 7 days to hike the Buckley Lake to Mowdade Lake Route. The weather can change extremely fast along this hiking trail.[181]
Accessibility
The MEVC lies in a remote location with no established road access.
To the east, the roughly 50-kilometre-long (31-mile) Klastline River Trail begins at the community of Iskut on the Stewart–Cassiar Highway. It extends northwest and west along the Klastline River for much its length. The trail enters Mount Edziza Provincial Park at about 25 kilometres (16 miles) where Kakiddi Creek drains into the Klastline River. After entering Mount Edziza Provincial Park, the Klastline River Trail traverses northwest along the Klastline River for about 10 kilometres (6.2 miles) and then crosses the river north of the MEVC. From there, the Klastline River Trail traverses west for about 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) to the northeastern end of Buckley Lake where it meets with the Buckley Lake Trail and Buckley Lake to Mowdade Lake Route junction.[55]
From near the Eastman Creek Rest Area south of
The MEVC can also be accessed by float plane or helicopter, both of which are available for charter at the communities of Iskut and Dease Lake.[23] Private aircraft are prohibited from landing on the Kitsu Plateau lava flows.[7] Kakiddi Lake, 180 Lake, Mess Lake, Arctic Lake, Nuttlude Lake, Mowdade Lake, Little Arctic Lake, Little Ball Lake, Mowchilla Lake and Buckley Lake are large enough to be used by float-equipped aircraft.[7][23] Landing on the latter four lakes with a private aircraft requires a letter of authorization from the BC Parks Stikine Senior Park Ranger.[7]
See also
Notes
References
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- ^ a b c d e "Mount Edziza". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2018-05-15. Retrieved 2021-09-25.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Stikine volcanic belt: Mount Edziza". Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes. Natural Resources Canada. 2009-04-01. Archived from the original on 2009-06-08. Retrieved 2023-01-29.
- ^ a b Edwards & Russell 2000, p. 1283.
- ^ a b c Yagi, Kenzo; Souther, Jack Gordon (1974). "Aenigmatite From Mt. Edziza, British Columbia, Canada" (PDF). American Mineralogist. 59. Mineralogical Society of America: 820. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-04-01. Retrieved 2021-09-27.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r "Mount Edziza Provincial Park". BC Parks. Archived from the original on 2023-01-23. Retrieved 2024-01-30.
- ^ Department of Energy, Mines and Resources. 1989. Archived from the originalon 2021-05-02. Retrieved 2021-09-25.
- ^ "Pillow Ridge". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2021-09-26.
- ^ "Spectrum Range". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2020-06-30. Retrieved 2021-09-26.
- ^ a b Souther 1992, p. 1.
- ^ ISSN 0377-0273.
- ^ a b Edwards & Russell 2000, p. 1284.
- ^ a b "Spectrum Range: General Information". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2022-09-22. Retrieved 2022-10-03.
- ^ doi:10.4095/119198.
- ISSN 0008-4077.
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- ^ "Stikinia Terrane, Canadian Cordillera" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-03-09. Retrieved 2022-06-29.
- ^ Bibcode:2010AGUFMNH11B1132E.
- ^ doi:10.4095/130715.
- ^ ISSN 1480-3313.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Souther 1992, p. 33.
- ^ a b c d e f g Souther 1992, p. 31.
- ^ OCLC 601782234. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2018-11-14.
- ^ Demarchi 2011, p. 146.
- ^ Demarchi 2011, pp. 143–147.
- ^ Demarchi 2011, p. 143.
- ^ a b c d e f Souther 1992, p. 32.
- ^ a b c Souther 1992, p. 113.
- ^ a b c Souther 1992, p. 214.
- ^ Souther 1992, pp. 26, 214, 219.
- ^ "Kena Cone (SLF-9)". Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes. Natural Resources Canada. 2009-03-10. Archived from the original on 2010-12-12. Retrieved 2024-02-15.
- ^ Souther 1992, pp. 214, 226, 234.
- ^ Souther 1992, pp. 212, 228.
- ^ Souther 1992, pp. 32, 235.
- ^ Souther 1992, pp. 22–24, 32.
- ^ Souther 1992, pp. 26, 226.
- ^ Souther 1992, p. 155.
- ^ "Ornostay Bluff". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2023-04-19.
- ^ "Koosick Bluff". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-09-30. Retrieved 2023-04-19.
- ^ "Hoia Bluff". BC Geographical Names. Retrieved 2023-04-19.
- ^ "Kaia Bluff". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-09-30. Retrieved 2023-04-19.
- ^ "Gnu Butte". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2023-04-19.
- ^ a b "Mess Lake Escarpment". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2023-04-19.
- ^ Souther 1992, p. 49.
- ^ "Obsidian Ridge". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-24. Retrieved 2024-02-15.
- ^ Souther 1992, p. 318.
- ^ "Destell Pass". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-19. Retrieved 2023-04-17.
- ^ Souther 1992, pp. 32, 318.
- ^ "Raspberry Pass". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-19. Retrieved 2023-04-17.
- ^ Souther 1992, pp. 32, 104.
- ^ a b c Souther 1992, pp. 32, 33.
- ^ a b c Souther 1992, p. 319.
- ^ "Arctic Lake". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2024-01-30.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-926806-87-7.
- ^ "Little Ball Lake". BC Geographical Names. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
- ^ "Little Arctic Lake". BC Geographical Names. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
- ^ "Wetalth Ridge". Geographical Names Data Base. Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 2024-01-11.
- ^ "Mess Creek". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-08-20. Retrieved 2022-09-29.
- ^ "Crayke Creek". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2022-09-29.
- ^ "Elwyn Creek". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2022-09-29.
- ^ "Kitsu Creek". Geographical Names Data Base. Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 2024-01-11.
- ^ "Kitsu Creek". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2022-04-24.
- ^ "Raspberry Creek". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-08-20. Retrieved 2022-09-29.
- ^ "Tadekho Creek". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-09-30. Retrieved 2022-09-29.
- ^ "Taweh Creek". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2022-09-29.
- ^ "Nagha Creek". BC Geographical Names. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2023-04-24.
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External links
- "Mt. Edziza, NW British Columbia, Canada". Oregon State University. 2000. Archived from the original on 2009-04-11.
- LaMoreaux, Kristen A. (2008). Recognizing Ice-Contact Trachyte-Phonolite Lavas at the Mount Edziza Volcanic Complex, British Columbia, Canada (PDF) (M.S.). University of Pittsburgh. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-09-29.
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