Mount Melbourne
Mount Melbourne | |
---|---|
Ultra | |
Coordinates | 74°21′S 164°42′E / 74.35°S 164.70°E[1] |
Geography | |
Geology | |
Age of rock | Unknown |
Mountain type | Stratovolcano |
Volcanic belt | McMurdo Volcanic Group |
Last eruption | 1892 ± thirty years |
Mount Melbourne is a 2,733-metre-high (8,967 ft) ice-covered
The volcano is part of the
Description
Mount Melbourne lies in North
Volcano
Mount Melbourne is an elongated
A 1-kilometre-wide (0.62 mi)
Except for geothermal areas, the ground is bouldery.
Glaciation
The mountain is covered with permanent ice, which extends to the coast[3] and leaves only a few exposures of the underlying rock;[34][42] rocky outcrops are most exposed on the eastern flank.[22] The caldera hosts a névé that generates a westward-flowing glacier.[40] An icefall lies northwest of the caldera.[32] Glaciers emanating from snowfields on the volcano have deposited moraines;[43] these and tills from both Pleistocene[e] and Holocene[f] glaciations crop out at Edmonson Point.[45]
Tephra layers crop out in ice cliffs[46] and seracs[36] and testify to recent eruptions,[47] including the one that deposited the ejecta and lapilli pumice units on the summit.[36] Tephra bands are also found in other glaciers of the region.[47] They form when snow accumulates on top of tephra that fell onto ice[27] and in the case of Mount Melbourne they indicate eruptions during the last few thousand years.[48] Volcanic sediments from Mount Melbourne are also found in Terra Nova Bay.[49]
Volcanic field
Mount Melbourne is surrounded by a volcanic field
Geology
Mount Melbourne is part of the
Volcanic activity of the McMurdo Volcanic Group is tied to
Mount Melbourne is part of a volcano alignment that includes The Pleiades, Mount Overlord,[72] Mount Rittmann – all large stratovolcanoes[73] – which with the Malta Plateau form the Melbourne province of the McMurdo Volcanic Group.[74] In addition, this province consists of numerous smaller volcanic centres, volcanic intrusions and sequences of volcanic rocks,[75] and it has been active for the past twenty-five million years.[37] Volcanic edifices buried under sediment are also part of the Melbourne province, including a cone southeast of Cape Washington, which has a size comparable to that of Mount Melbourne.[76]
Mount Melbourne and its volcanic field are over a
Composition
The trachytes and mugearites formed through magmatic differentiation in a crustal magma chamber[7] from alkali basalts,[88] defining an alkali basalt-trachyte differentiation series.[89] Basalts were mainly erupted early in the history of the volcano.[7] During the last hundred thousand years the magma chamber became established; this allowed both the differentiation of trachytes and the occurrence of large eruptions.[90] A gap in the rock spectrum ("Daly gap") with a scarcity of benmoreite and mugearite has been noted at Mount Melbourne and other volcanoes in the region.[42] There is no agreement on which processes contributed to petrogenesis in the Mount Melbourne volcanic field[91] but diverse mantle domains and assimilation and fractional crystallization processes appear to have played a role.[92] The magmatic system that feeds Mount Melbourne appears to have a composition distinct from the one associated with the Mount Melbourne volcanic field.[93]
Eruption history
Mount Melbourne was active beginning 3.0–2.7 million years ago.[37][88] Activity has been subdivided into an older Pliocene Cape Washington stage, an early Pleistocene Random Hills stage, the Shield Nunatak stage that is 400,000 to 100,000 years old,[98] and the recent Mount Melbourne stage.[99] Volcanic activity migrated north from Cape Washington towards the Transantarctic Mountains and eventually became centralized at Mount Melbourne.[90] During the last hundred thousand years Mount Melbourne has produced about 0.0015 cubic kilometres per year (0.00036 cu mi/a) of magma.[90] The earliest records of the volcano noted its young appearance.[100]
Mount Melbourne volcanic field
Ages obtained on the Mount Melbourne volcanic field include 2.96 ± 0.20 million years,
Radiometric dating has shown that the appearance of a landform at Mount Melbourne is not indicative of its age; some well preserved vents are older than heavily eroded ones.[98] On the other hand, a lack of proper margins of error and lack of details on which samples were dated has been problematic for radiometric dating efforts.[55]
Tephra
Tephra found at the Allan Hills,[102] in Dome C[14] and in the Siple Dome ice cores may come from Mount Melbourne.[103] Some marine tephra layers originally attributed to Mount Melbourne may instead come from Mount Rittmann,[104] and many tephra layers in the area have compositions that do not match these from Mount Melbourne.[105] There are additional tephra layers attributed to the volcano:
- Tephra layers less than 500,000 years old in the Lichen Hills blue-ice areas have been attributed to volcanoes in the Mount Melbourne volcanic province.[106]
- A tephra layer less than 30,000 years old in a sediment core from the Ross Sea has a composition indicating that it was erupted at Mount Melbourne. Its deposition has been used to infer that that part of the western Ross Sea was ice-free at that time.[107]
- A tephra layer found in the Ross Sea has been interpreted as originating from an eruption of Mount Melbourne 9,700 ± 5,300 years ago.[108]
- In the Talos Dome ice core record, two tephra layers emplaced 2,680 and 5,280 years ago have compositions similar to these of Mount Melbourne.[109]
- Tephra layers at Siple Dome indicate eruptions at Mount Melbourne in 304 CE,[110] which deposited substantial amounts of sulfate on the ice sheet.[111]
- A tephra layer at Siple Dome dated to 1810 CE might have been erupted by Mount Melbourne, but its attribution is less certain than for the 304 CE tephra.[112]
Mount Melbourne proper
The Edmonson Point
After this ignimbrite, a series of dikes gave rise to the Adelie Penguin Rookery lava field. This lava field, which probably formed subglacially, is made up by numerous blocky lava flows with glassy margins that reach a thickness of 300 metres (1,000 ft) and are formed by
Rocks at the summit have ages of between 260,000 and 10,000 years.
Last eruption and present-day activity
Tephrochronology has yielded an age of 1892 ± 30 CE for the last eruption.[1] This eruption deposited a major tephra layer around the volcano, which crops out mainly on its eastern side[37] and in the Aviator and Tinker Glaciers.[123] The three small craters on the rim of the Mount Melbourne summit crater formed at the end of this eruption.[124]
No eruptions have been observed during historical time,
Hazards and monitoring
Future moderate[29] to large explosive eruptions[9] such as Plinian eruptions are possible.[8] The prevailing winds would transport volcanic ash eastward across the Ross Sea,[124] and the ash might affect research stations close to Mount Melbourne such as Mario Zucchelli, Gondwana and Jang Bogo.[134] The hazards of Antarctic volcano eruptions are poorly known.[135] Mount Melbourne is remote, and thus renewed eruptions[133] would likely not impact any human habitations but regional environmental or even global climate impacts,[136] as well as disruptions of air travel, are possible.[9]
Italian scientists began a
Geothermal activity
Individual geothermally heated areas cover surfaces of a few hectares.[22] Typically, the soil consists of a thin sand layer with organic matter covering scoria gravel.[18] In some places, the ground is too hot to be touched.[94] Mount Melbourne is one of several volcanoes in Antarctica that feature such geothermal soils.[145]
Fumarolic landforms include ice towers,[p] fumaroles,[50] ice "roofs",[147] caves in snow and firn,[22] bare ground,[32] ice hummocks surrounding fumarolic vents,[148] puddles formed by condensed water vapour[18] and steaming ground:[14]
- Ice hummocks are hollow glacial structures that encase fumaroles. They reach heights of 4 metres (13 ft) and widths of 1 to 6 metres (3 to 20 ft).[23] They mainly form over colder ground and widely spaced fumarolic vents.[149]
- Ice towers are widespread around the caldera, especially in the north-northwestern and south-southeastern sectors, while warm ground is more restricted. In the northern sector of the volcano, ice towers and bare ground form a southeast–northwest trending lineament.[32] Ice towers form when fumarolic gases freeze in the cold Antarctic air.[94]
- Glacial caves form when geothermal heat melts ice, leaving cavities. Some of these caves are in the summit caldera and reach lengths of several hundred metres, with ceilings reaching 3 metres (9.8 ft) height.[22] Several caves have been accessed through ice towers[150] or through gaps where the ice surrounding the cave rests on rock,[151] and one ice cave ("Aurora Ice Cave") was mapped in 2016.[152]
The caves and ice towers release water-vapour-rich warm air.[150] Fumarole temperatures can reach 60 °C (140 °F), contrasting with the cold air.[29] Fumaroles release gases containing excesses of volcanic carbon dioxide and methane.[138] Hydrogen sulfide gas has been detected too,[94] but only at low concentrations which do not prevent the development of vegetation.[118] Yellow deposits have been identified as sulfur.[153]
The geothermal manifestations appear to be powered mainly by
Climate
There are no detailed meteorological records of the summit region.
During the
Life
Vegetation is particularly common on a ridge within[149] and south of the main crater, "Cryptogam Ridge".[t] It features a long snow-free area with a gravelly ground, small terraces and stone stripes.[32] Soil temperatures recorded there reach 40 to 50 °C (104 to 122 °F).[172] These are the only occurrences of Campylopus pyriformis on warm ground in Antarctica.[173]
Mount Melbourne along with Mount Erebus, Mount Rittmann and Deception Island is one of four volcanoes in Antarctica known for having geothermal habitats, although other poorly studied volcanoes such as Mount Berlin, Mount Hampton and Mount Kauffman may also have them.[174] In South America, high-elevation geothermal environments similar to Mount Melbourne are found at Socompa.[175] Vegetation on geothermally heated terrain is unusual in Antarctica[176] but other occurs elsewhere, including on Bouvet, Deception Island, Mount Erebus and the South Sandwich Islands.[148]
The geothermal area at the summit of Mount Melbourne makes up Antarctic Specially Protected Area 118,[177] which contains two specially restricted areas around Cryptogam Ridge and some markers used in studies of volcano deformation.[149] Some algae from Mount Melbourne were accidentally transferred to Deception Island or Mount Erebus.[178]
Edmonson Point and Cape Washington have
Biology
The vegetation on Mount Melbourne grows mainly on terrain heated to temperatures of over 10 to 20 °C (50 to 68 °F), and there are gradations in vegetation type from colder to warmer temperatures.[157] There are differences between the vegetation[182] and bacterial communities at Cryptogam Ridge and those on the northwest slope of Mount Melbourne; distinct soils may be the reason for such differences.[183]
These communities must have reached Mount Melbourne from far away.[148] Transport was probably by wind as there is no flowing water in the region.[184] Mount Melbourne was recently active, has a polar night lasting thirteen weeks,[171] has soils containing toxic elements such as mercury,[185] is distant from ecosystems that could be the source of colonization events, and lies away from the westerlies[u], which may explain why the vegetation is species-poor.[187] Pohlia nutans may have arrived only recently on Mount Melbourne, or this volcano is not as favourable for its growth as Mount Rittmann, where this moss is more common.[118] Its colonies are less vigorous on Mount Melbourne than Campylopus pyriformis.[184]
Condensing fumarole gases and meltwater from snow form the water supply of this vegetation.[148] Mosses are concentrated around fumarolic vents as there is more fresh water available there.[3] The steam freezes in the cold air, forming the ice hummocks that act as a shelter and maintain stable humidity and temperature.[156] The geothermal heating and the availability of freshwater sets these volcanic biological communities apart from other Antarctic vegetation communities that are heated by the sun.[185]
Some bacterial species are
Other species associated with the vegetation are the
Several bacterial species were first described from Mount Melbourne's geothermal terrains:- Alicyclobacillus pohliae from the northwest slope.[199]
- Aneurinibacillus terranovensis from Cryptogam Ridge and also from Mount Rittmann volcano.[200]
- Bacillus fumarioli from Cryptogam Ridge.[194]
- Bacillus thermoantarcticus from Cryptogam Ridge,[201] later renamed to Bacillus thermantarcticus.[194] A further reclassification to Geobacillus thermantarcticus was proposed in 2012.[202]
- Brevibacillus levickii from the northwest slope.[200]
See also
- List of Ultras of Antarctica
- List of volcanoes in Antarctica
Notes
- ^ A graben is an elongated area where the crust is depressed along faults, which form its long sides.[2]
- composite volcano".[20]
- ^ Fall deposits are volcanic deposits formed by material precipitating out from an eruption column.[21]
- ^ An elevation of 2,730 metres (8,960 ft) has been reported.[33]
- ^ The period of time between 2.5800 and 0.0117 million years ago.[44]
- ^ The time period between 11,700 years ago and today.[44]
- ^ Palagonitization is a chemical process during which volcanic glass undergoes alteration to become palagonite.[58]
- ^ "Alkaline" is a classification for a wide variety of volcanic rocks, with a common definition being rocks that contain more alkali elements than can be taken up by the mineral feldspar.[62]
- ^ The period of time between 33.9 and 23.03 million years ago.[44]
- ^ A continental rift is a basin with an elongated shape, where the crust has drifted apart and has thus become thinned.[66]
- ^ The period of time before 541 ± 1 million years ago.[44]
- ^ The period of time between 485.4 ± 1.9 and 443.8 ± 1.5 million years ago.[44]
- ^ The period of time between 145 and 66 million years ago.[44]
- ^ The anomaly has been interpreted to be either a transform fault or a push-up structure formed by faulting.[67]
- ^ Sometimes it is referred to as an active volcano,[126] since it had eruptions during the Holocene.[127]
- ^ Ice towers reach 1 to 6 metres (3 ft 3 in to 19 ft 8 in) width[25] and 5 metres (16 ft) height. They are also known as "ice pinnacles" when they are not high.[94] Ice pinnacles are hollow and sometimes large enough that people can fit in.[146]
- chlorophytes, cyanobacteria and lichen algae.[3] Among the species identified are Aphanocapsa elachista,[161] Chlorella emersonii, Chlorella reniformis, Coccomyxa gloeobotrydiformis,[162] Coenocystis oleifera, Gloeocapsa magma, Hapalosiphon sp., Mastigocladus laminosus, Nostoc sp., Phormidium fragile, Pseudocoecomyxa simplex, Stigonema ocellatum and Tolypothrix bouteillei.[161][163] Other genera are Chroococcus, Tolypothrix and Stygonema.[18] Mastigocladus laminosus and Pseudocoecomyxa simplex are the dominant species at Mount Melbourne.[164]
- ^ Cephaloziella exiliflora,[18] Cephaloziella varians[3] and Herzogobryum atrocapillum[165]
- ^ Campylopus pyriformis[3] and Pohlia nutans[166]
- ^ Sometimes misspelled as "Cryptogram Ridge"[149]
- ^ The westerlies are the belts of westerly winds that lie outside of the tropics.[186]
- ^ The species Aureobasidium pullulans, Chaetomium gracile and Penicillium brevicompactum have been found in association with mosses.[195] Other fungi reported are Acremonium charticola, Chaetomium sp.,[196] Cryptococcus, Mucor and Penicillium.[197]
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Further reading
- "Skiing the Pacific Ring of Fire and Beyond". Amar Andalkar's Ski Mountaineering and Climbing Site. 2007 [1997]. Retrieved 14 January 2005.
External links
- Smellie, J. L.; Rocchi, S.; Di Vincenzo, G. (2023). "Controlling influence of water and ice on eruptive style and edifice construction in the Mount Melbourne Volcanic Field (northern Victoria Land, Antarctica)". Frontiers in Earth Science. 10. ISSN 2296-6463.
- "Mount Melbourne, Antarctica" on Peakbagger