Mount Rinjani
Mount Rinjani | |
---|---|
Mount Barujari | |
Ultra Ribu | |
Coordinates | 8°24′52″S 116°27′35″E / 8.414414°S 116.459767°E[1] |
Naming | |
Native name | Gunung Rinjani (Indonesian) |
Geography | |
Location | |
Parent range | Lesser Sunda Islands |
Geology | |
Age of rock | Late Mesozoic |
Mountain type | Somma |
Volcanic arc | Sunda Arc |
Last eruption | 14:45, 27 September 2016 (WITA) |
Climbing | |
Easiest route | Senaru |
Normal route | Sembalun |
Access | Restricted |
Mount Rinjani (Indonesian: Gunung Rinjani, Sasak: Gunong Rinjani) is an active volcano in Indonesia on the island of Lombok. Administratively the mountain is in the Regency of North Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara (Indonesian: Nusa Tenggara Barat, NTB). It rises to 3,726 metres (12,224 ft), making it the second highest volcano in Indonesia.[2] It is also the highest point in the Indonesian province of West Nusa Tenggara.
Adjacent to the volcano is a 6-by-8.5-kilometre (3.7 by 5.3 mi)
Geography
Lombok is one of the
The islands of Lombok and Sumbawa lie in the central portion of the Sunda Arc. The Sunda Arc is home to some of the world's most dangerous and explosive volcanoes. The eruption of nearby
The
Rinjani volcano on the island of Lombok rises to 3,726 metres (12,224 ft), second in height among Indonesian volcanoes only to Sumatra's Kerinci volcano. Rinjani has a steep-sided conical profile when viewed from the east, but the western side of the compound volcano is truncated by the 6 x 8.5 km, oval-shaped Segara Anak caldera. The western half of the caldera contains a 230-metre-deep lake whose crescentic form results from growth of the post-caldera cone Barujari at the eastern end of the caldera.[8]
Geologic summary
On the basis of the
The geology and tectonic setting of Lombok (and nearby Sumbawa) are described as being in the central portion of the Sunda Arc.[11] The oldest exposed rocks are Miocene, suggesting that subduction and volcanism began considerably later than in Java and Sumatra to the west, where there are abundant volcanic and intrusive rocks of Late Mesozoic age. The islands are located on the eastern edge of the Sunda shelf, in a zone where crustal thickness is apparently rapidly diminishing, from west to east.[12]
The seismic velocity structure of the crust in this region is transitional between typical oceanic and continental profiles and the Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho) appears to lie at about 20 kilometres (12 mi) depth.[13] These factors tend to suggest that there has been limited opportunity for crustal contamination of magmas erupted on the islands of Lombok and Sumbawa. In addition, these islands lie to the west of those parts of the easternmost Sunda and west Banda arcs where collision with the Australian plate is apparently progressing.[14]
The volcano of Rinjani is 165 to 190 kilometres (103–118 mi) above the
Volcanology
The Rinjani
Eruption rate, eruption sites, eruption type and magma composition have changed during the last 10,000 years before the caldera forming eruption.[22] The eruptions of 1994 and 1995 have presented at Gunung Baru (or 'New Mountain' – approximately 2,300 metres (7,500 ft) above sea level) in the center of this caldera and lava flows from subsequent eruptions have entered the lake. This cone has since been renamed Gunung Barujari (or 'Gunung Baru Jari' in Indonesian).
The first historical eruption occurred in September 1847. The most recent eruption of Mount Rinjani was in May 2010 and the most recent significant eruptions occurred during a spate of activity from 1994 to 1995 which resulted in the further development of Gunung Barujari. Historical eruptions at Rinjani dating back to 1847 have been restricted to Barujari cone and the Rombongan dome (in 1944) and consist of moderate explosive activity and occasional
On 3 November 1994, a cold lahar (volcanic mudflow) from the summit area of Rinjani volcano traveled down the Kokok Jenggak River killing thirty people from the village of Aikmel who were caught by surprise when collecting water from the river in the path of the flow.
In connection with the eruption of the cone Gunung Barujari the status for Gunung Rinjani was raised from Normal (
Volcanic composition
In Lombok, Rinjani volcano lies approximately 300 kilometres (190 mi) north of the
In September 1995 an aviation report was issued concerning an unconfirmed
On 3 November 1994, a cold lahar (volcanic mudflow) from the summit area of Rinjani volcano traveled down the Kokok Jenggak River killing thirty people from the village of Aikmel who were caught by surprise when collecting water from the river in the path of the flow. One person remained missing as of 9 November 1994. No damage to the village was reported. Local volcanologists noted that additional lahars could be triggered by heavy rainfall.[31]
During 4 June 1994 – January 1995 the DVGHM (Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation) noted that explosions occurred on Rinjani. Those explosions came from the Barujari volcano.[32]
Between 3 June 1994 and 21 November 1994 records of Rinjani's eruptive history indicate activity accorded Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) with a rating of 3(?) with the area of activity described as Gunung Barujari. Eruptive characteristics documented for the events of that time are described as, central vent eruption with an explosive eruption, with pyroclastic flow(s), lava flow(s), fatalities and mudflow(s) (lahars).[33]
In May 1994 a glow was noticed on the crater floor of Barujari cone, which at this time had undergone no significant activity since August 1966. A portable seismograph (PS-2) and telemetry seismograph (Teledyne) were put into operation on 27 May and 9 June, respectively. One volcanic earthquake event/day was recorded on 27, 28, 30, and 31 May. After 4 June, however, volcanic tremor with a maximum amplitude of 35 mm was recorded, presumably associated with the upward movement of magma. At 0200 on 3 June 1994, Barujari cone began erupting by sending an ash plume 500 m (1,600 ft) high. One 8 June 1994 press report described emission of "smoldering lava" and "thick smoke," as well as ashfall in nearby villages from an ash cloud rising 1,500 m (4,900 ft) above the summit. Between 3 and 10 June 1994, up to 172 explosions could be heard each day from the Sembalun Lawang volcano observatory (about 15 km (9.3 mi) NE). During this period, seismic data indicated a dramatic increase in the number of explosions per day, from 68 to 18,720. Eruptions were continuous at least through 19 June 1994, with maximum ash plume heights of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) on 9–11 June 1994.[34]
Between 28 March 1966 and 8 August 1966 records of Rinjani's eruptive history indicate activity accorded a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) rating of 1. Lava volume of 6.6 million cubic metres (230×10 6 cu ft) and a tephra volume of 20,000 cubic metres (710,000 cu ft) was recorded. The area of activity described was the east side of Barujari at 2,250 m (7,380 ft). Eruptive characteristics were documented as a central vent eruption, explosive eruption and lava flow(s).[35]
In December 1944, Rinjani appears to have had a significant event. Between 25 December 1944 and 1(?) January 1945 eruptive activity is rated 2 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) The event has been listed in the historical records of the Global Volcanism Program indicating a lava volume: of 74×10 6 m3 (2.6×10 9 cu ft) occurring in an area of activity on the north west flank of Barujari (Rombongan). The eruptive characteristics are described a central vent eruption on the flank (excentric) vent, a crater lake eruption, explosive eruption, lava flow(s) and a lava dome extrusion with associated damage to land, property.[36]
On 27 September 2004 a DVGHM (Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation) report noted the decision to increase Rinjani's hazard status to Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) Alert Level 2 (Yellow). During the last third of 2004, the number of volcanic and tectonic earthquakes had increased. Their increase followed a rise in the number of tectonic earthquakes that began 18 August 2004. Tremor registered on 23, 24, 25, and 26 September 2004. Tremor amplitudes ranged between 12 and 13.5 mm, and the duration of the tremor stood between 94 and 290 seconds.[32]
At 05:30 on 1 October 2004 Rinjani erupted. The eruption caused authorities to immediately raise the hazard status to Alert Level 3 (Orange). Details regarding the initial 1 October 2004 eruption are indistinct. During 2–5 October 2004 explosions sent ash columns 300 to 800 m (980–2,620 ft) above the summit. Gray, thick ash columns drifted to the north and detonation sounds accompanied every explosion. Successive explosions occurred at intervals of 5 to 160 minutes. Explosions vented on the north eastern slope of Barujari volcano. Some material also vented from Barujari's peak and fell down around its edifice. A press report in the Jakarta Post indicated that evacuations were not considered necessary.[37] A Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI):2 rating was issued for the activity between 1 May 2004 through to (on or after) 5 October 2004.[38]
Activity since 2009
2009
On 27 April 2009 Gunung Barujari became active, with activity continuing through to May 2009. The mountain was closed at that time as the eruptions intensified with plumes of smoke and ash as high as 8,000 m (26,000 ft).[39] A Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI):2 rating was issued for the activity between 2 May 2009 and 20 December 2009. The activity during this period was described as having the characteristics of central vent eruption, flank (excentric) vent, explosive eruption and lava flow(s).[38][40]
2010
Rinjani erupted three times on 22 May 2010 with activity continuing until early on 23 May. According to the volcano's official monitoring agency, ash from Mount Rinjani was reported as rising up to two kilometers into the atmosphere and damaged crops. The volcano did not threaten villagers at that time. Lava flowed into the caldera lake, pushing its temperature up from 21 to 35 °C (70 to 95 °F), while smoke spread 12 kilometres (7.5 mi).[41]
In February 2010 observers at the Gunung Rinjani Observation Post located 1.25 km (4,100 ft) northeast of G. Rinjani saw one whitish-colored plume that rose 100 metres (328 ft) from the volcano. Dense whitish plumes (and possibly brown) rose 500 to 900 m (1,600–3,000 ft) in March 2010 on 26 occasions and as high as 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in April 2010 on 41 occasions. Plumes seen on 1 and 2 May 2010 were "chocolate" in color and rose a maximum height of 1,600 metres (5,200 ft). From February 2010 through April 2010 seismicity decreased, although the maximum amplitude of earthquakes increased. CVGHM (Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation) also noted that ash eruptions and ejected
The activity in early 2010 centred about Gunung Barujari, a post-caldera cone that lies within the Rinjani's caldera lake of Segara Anak. The Volcanological Survey of Indonesia reported on 1 May 2010, that a column of smoke was observed rising from G. Rinjani "issuing eruptions 1300–1600 metres tall with thick brown color and strong pressure". Their report Evaluasi Kegiatan G. Rinjani of 4 May also stated that on 1 May 2010 at 10:00 four events of explosive earthquake were recorded with a maximum amplitude of 6–53 mm and 110 seconds long earthquake, earthquake tremor events with a maximum amplitude of 1 mm and 55 second long duration, 15 Local Tectonic earthquake events and two events of
The
2015
On 31 October 2015, Mount Rinjani started erupting again.[46]
2018
On 29 July 2018 a magnitude 6.4 earthquake caused landslides on the north portion of Mount Rinjani.[47]
August 2018
On 5 August 2018,
Monitoring program
Gunung Rinjani Observation Post Rinjani Sembalun is located in the village of Lawang, Sub Sembalun 2.5 km (4000 feet) northeast of G. Rinjani) in the Regency of East Lombok. Observers at this post monitor G.Rinjani, G.Barujari/G.Tenga within the Segara Anak Caldera.[49]
Rinjani National Park
The volcano and the caldera are protected by the
The park is popular for mountain climbs and trekking and represents an important nature reserve and water catchment area. The park is officially 41,330 hectares (159.6 sq mi) within the park boundaries and includes a further 66,000 hectares (250 sq mi) of protected forest outside. The mountain and its satellites form the Mount Rinjani National Park (Taman Nasional Gunung Rinjani). Mount Rinjani has obtained the World Legacy Award from Conservation International and Traveller (2004), and was a finalist for Tourism for Tomorrow Awards (2005 and 2008) from the World Travel Tourism Council (WTTC).
The Rinjani scops owl was found in 2003 and after 10 years of research was recognized as a new endemic species (specimens had been collected in the 19th century but had been identified as being Mollucas scops owls).[54]
Eruption history of Rinjani
VEI
|
Date Start-Stop | Lava Volume | Tephra Volume | Area of Activity | Eruptive Characteristics | Note[55] | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
? | 2016 September 27 14:45 WITA | Gunung Barujari | Ash ejected to atmosphere[56][57][58] | [56][57][58] | |||
? | 2015 October 31 Ongoing |
Gunung Barujari | Ash plumes lava flows Strombolian explosions | [59] | |||
2 | 2010 February 2010 May 23 |
Gunung Barujari | Ash plumes ejected incandescent material fell within Rinjani caldera some ash was blown out of the caldera possible ash plume rose to an altitude of 5.5 km further ash plumes to 2 km, lava flows, crop damage |
SI / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report-Rinjani[60] PVMGV-Evaluasi Kegiatan G. Rinjani[45][61] ABC Asia Pacific News Service 24 may2010[41] | |||
2 | 2009 May 2 2009 Dec 20 (?) |
NE flank of Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Flank (excentric) vent Explosive eruption Lava flow(s) | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
2 | 2004 Oct 1 2004 Oct 5 (on or after) |
Summit and NE flank of Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Central vent eruption Flank (excentric) vent Explosive eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
0 | 1995 Sep 12 | Explosive eruption (?) | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani Eruption "Uncertain" | ||||
3? | 1994 Jun 3 1994 Nov 2 |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Explosive eruption Pyroclastic flow(s) Lava flow(s) Fatalities Mudflow(s) (lahars) | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani (VEI): 3? | |||
1 | 1966 Mar 28 1966 Aug 8 |
6.6×106 m3 | 2×104 m3 | Eastern side of Gunung Barujari (2250 m) | Central vent eruption Explosive eruption Lava flow(s) (?) | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |
0? | 1965 Sep (end) Unknown |
Gunung Barujari | Flank (excentric) vent eruption Lava flow(s) (?) |
Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
0? | 1953 Oct 15 ± 45 days (end) Unknown |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani (VEI): 0? | |||
0? | 1949 1950 (months uncertain) |
NW flank of Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Explosive eruption Lava flow(s) | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
2 | 1944 Dec 25 1945 Jan 1 (?) |
7.4×107 m3 | NW flank of Barujari (Rombongan) | Central vent eruption Flank (excentric) vent Crater lake eruption Explosive eruption Lava flow(s) Lava dome extrusion Damage (land, property, etc.) | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | ||
0 | 1941 May 30 (end) Unknown |
Rinjani summit | Central vent eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani Eruption is Uncertain | |||
2 | 1915 Nov 4 (end) Unknown |
Gunung Barujari (Segara Munjar) |
Central vent eruption Explosive eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
2 | 1909 Nov 30 1909 Dec 2 |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Explosive eruption Mudflow(s) (lahars) |
Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
1 | 1906 Apr 29 (end) Unknown |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Explosive eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
2 | 1901 Jun 1 1901 Jun 2 |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Explosive eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
2 | 1900 Nov 30 1900 Dec 2 |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Explosive eruption Lava flow(s) | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
2 | 1884 Aug 8 1884 Aug 10 ± 1 day |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Explosive eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
2 | 1847 Sep 10 1847 Sep 12 |
Gunung Barujari | Central vent eruption Explosive eruption | Historical Records GVP-Rinjani | |||
7 | 1257 | Gunung Samalas, the former twin peak of Gunung Rinjani, destroyed after the explosion. |
Caldera-forming eruption; possible trigger of the Little Ice Age. The largest eruption in the past 2000 years. | Based on Arctic deposit study[62][63] | [20][64][65] | ||
4 | 2,550 ± 50 B.P. | 0.4 km3 | Producing the Rinjani Pumice and a sub-plinian pumice fall deposit | 14C |
See also
References
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- ISBN 9780955340345.
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- ^ (qf. Foden and Varne 1981b)
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- ^ (Hamilton 1979)
- ^ a b Hedervari (1978) and Ritsema (1954)
- ^ (Prasetyo 1992). Abbot and Chamalaun (1978)
- ^ a b Wikibooks:The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda Islands
- ^ Siegfried, Tom (2012). "Mystery Volcano's Name Revealed Despite Gag Order", Science News, v. 182 no. 1, 14 July 2012, p. 2.
- ^ a b Alexandra Witze (14 July 2012). "13th century volcano mystery may be solved". ScienceNews. p. 12. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
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- ^ "2002–2004: Volcanoes in Indonesia: Comparative study of island arc volcanoes between Japan and Indonesia a Co-operation project between GSJ and Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Indonesia (DVGHM) (VSI)-Survey of Rinjani volcano (Lombok,Indonesia) and caldera volcanoes in Bali". 2 February 2004. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ "RINJANI Lombok Island (Indonesia) 8.42°S, 116.47°E; summit elev. 3726 mi Global Vulcanism Program USGS-Smithsosian". 28 April – 4 May 2010. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ a b "Evaluasi Kegiatan G. Rinjani". Pusat Vulkanologi & Mitigasi Bencana Geologi, Volcanological Survey of Indonesia. 4 May 2010. Archived from the original on 17 July 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
- ^ Sunda Trench (4°30' S 11°10' S 100°00' E 119°00' Accredited by: SCGN (Apr. 1987) The trench was studied in some detail in the 1920s-1930s by Dutch geodesist F.A. Vening Meinesz, who made classic pendulum gravity measurements in a Dutch submarine. Shown as Java Trench in ACUF (Advisory Committee on Undersea Features Gazetteer). see also: http://www.gebco.net/
- ^ (Hamilton 1979) cited from The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda Islands-IV. Volcanic Activity and Composition, accessed 2010-05-10
- ^ a b Foden and Varne (1981) cited from The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda Islands-IV. Volcanic Activity and Composition, accessed 2010-05-10
- ^ Hamilton (1979) cited from The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda Islands-IV. Volcanic Activity and Composition
- .
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- ^ "Rinjani-Eruptive History". Global Vulcanism Program. 3 June – 21 November 1994. Archived from the original on 20 August 2007. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ "Index of Monthly Reports-05/1994 (BGVN 19:05) Ashfalls cause aviation warnings; lava flows cover summit area". Global Vulcanism Program. 2 May – 20 December 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ "Eruptive Events December 1966". Global Vulcanism Program. 28 March – 8 August 1966. Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ "Eruptive Events December 1944". Global Vulcanism Program. 25 December 1944 – 1 January 1945. Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ "Rinjani-Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia 8.42°S, 116.47°E; summit elev. 3,726 m-During 2–5 October 2004". GVN Bulletin-Rinjani Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. 14 January 2005. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ a b "Global Vulcanism Program-Rinjani Eruptive History". Global Vulcanism Program. 2 May – 20 December 2009. Retrieved 10 May 2010.
- ^ "Mount Rinjani Closed As Eruptions Intensify". Tempointeractive.com-Mount Rinjani Closed As Eruptions Intensify. 3 May 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ "Weekly Reports". Retrieved 13 June 2015.
- ^ a b "Volcano erupts in Indonesia". Australian Broadcasting Commission-AsiaPacific News Center. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
- ^ "SI / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report-RINJANI Lombok Island (Indonesia) 8.42°S, 116.47°E; summit elev. 3726 m". Global Vulcanism Program Program. 28 April – 4 May 2010. Archived from the original on 25 June 2010. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ "USGS Volcanic Activity Alert-Notification System". USGS Volcano Hazards Program. 29 December 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ "Darwin VAAC – Darwin, Australia". Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers. May 2001. Retrieved 17 May 2010.
- ^ a b "SI / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report-5–11 May 2010-RINJANI Lombok Island (Indonesia)". Global Volcanism Program. 5–11 May 2010. Retrieved 17 May 2010.
- ^ Sennert, S K, ed. (4 November 2015). "Report on Rinjani (Indonesia)". Weekly Volcanic Activity Report, 28 October-3 November 2015. Smithsonian Institution and US Geological Survey. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
- ^ "Lombok Earthquake, 826 Tourists in Sembalun Awaiting Evacuation". Kabar24 (in Indonesian). 29 July 2018. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
- ^ Permadi, Agie (6 August 2018). "Gempa Lombok Tak Berdampak pada Aktivitas Gunung Agung dan Rinjani". KOMPAS (in Indonesian). Retrieved 6 August 2018.
- ^ "Pusat Vulkanologi & Mitigasi Bencana Geologi – VSI – Contact". Archived from the original on 29 July 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2010.
- ^ "Pure elation on reaching Rinjani's summit at dawn". Rinjani Dawn Adventures. 11 November 2019.
- ISBN 978-0-9553403-4-5.
- ^ "Main Object on Mount Rinjani".
- ^ "Seven Die on Mt. Rinjani". Rinjani Dawn Adventures. rinjanidawnadventures.com. 10 November 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2010.
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- ^ "Eruptive History: Rinjani". Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 13 June 2015.
- ^ a b "Indonesia Evacuates Tourists After Mount Barujari Eruption". Fox News. Associated Press. 28 September 2016. Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ a b "Gunung Barujari meletus pada Selasa (27/9/2016) pukul 14.45 WITA atau 13.45 WIB;from google (gunung rinjani meletus 27 september wita) result 1".
- ^ a b "Mount Barujari, a sub-volcano of Mount Rinjani in Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara (NTB), erupted at around 2:45 p.m. local time on Tuesday;from google (mount barujari erupt 27 September local time) result 1".
- ^ "Rinjani volcano (Lombok, Indonesia) activity update".
- ^ "Weekly Reports: Rinjani". Retrieved 13 June 2015.
- ^ "Pusat Vulkanologi & Mitigasi Bencana Geologi – VSI – Evaluasi Kegiatan G. Rinjani". Archived from the original on 17 July 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2010.
- ^ "Tiga Gunung Indonesia Ini Bikin Dunia Terkaget-kaget". Retrieved 30 December 2013.
- ^ "Terkuak: Letusan Samalas (Rinjani), Lebih Besar Dari Krakatau Bahkan Tambora!".
- ^ Takada et al., 2003; Nasution et al., 2003
- ^ "Indonesia volcanoes". staff.aist.go.jp. Archived from the original on 12 December 2007.