Mount Rushmore
Mount Rushmore National Memorial Shrine of Democracy Tȟuŋkášila Šákpe | |
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Location | Pennington County, South Dakota |
Nearest city | Keystone, South Dakota |
Coordinates | 43°52′44″N 103°27′35″W / 43.87889°N 103.45972°W |
Area | 1,278 acres (5.17 km2) |
Authorized | March 3, 1925 |
Visitors | 2,440,449 (in 2022)[1] |
Governing body | National Park Service |
Website | www |
Mount Rushmore National Memorial | |
Built | 1927–1941 |
Architect | Gutzon and Lincoln Borglum |
NRHP reference No. | 66000718 |
Added to NRHP | October 15, 1966 |
The Mount Rushmore National Memorial is a
The sculptor chose Mount Rushmore in part because it faces southeast for maximum sun exposure. The carving was the idea of Doane Robinson, a historian for the state of South Dakota. Robinson originally wanted the sculpture to feature American West heroes, such as Lewis and Clark, their expedition guide Sacagawea, Oglala Lakota chief Red Cloud,[9] Buffalo Bill Cody,[10] and Oglala Lakota chief Crazy Horse.[11] Borglum chose the four presidents instead.
Peter Norbeck, U.S. senator from South Dakota, sponsored the project and secured federal funding.[12] Construction began in 1927 and the presidents' faces were completed between 1934 and 1939. After Gutzon Borglum died in March 1941, his son Lincoln took over as leader of the construction project. Each president was originally to be depicted from head to waist, but lack of funding forced construction to end on October 31, 1941,[13] and only Washington's sculpture includes any detail below chin level.
The sculpture at Mount Rushmore is built on land that was illegally
History
"Six Grandfathers" to "Mount Rushmore"
Mount Rushmore and the surrounding Black Hills (Pahá Sápa) are considered sacred by Plains Indians such as the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota Sioux, who used the area for centuries as a place to pray and gather food, building materials, and medicine.[16] The Lakota called the mountain "Six Grandfathers" (Tȟuŋkášila Šákpe),[17] symbolizing ancestral deities personified as the six directions: north, south, east, west, above (sky), and below (earth).[18] In the latter half of the 19th century, expansion by the United States into the Black Hills led to the Sioux Wars. In the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie, the U.S. government granted exclusive use of all of the Black Hills, including Six Grandfathers, to the Sioux in perpetuity.[16][18]
Six Grandfathers was a significant part of the spiritual journey taken in the early 1870s by Lakota leader Black Elk (Heȟáka Sápa, also known as "The Sixth Grandfather"),[19] that culminated at the nearby Black Elk Peak,[17] (Hiŋháŋ Káǧa, "Making of Owls")[20][21] U.S. general
Among those prospectors was New York mining promoter James Wilson, who organized the Harney Peak Tin Company, and hired New York attorney Charles E. Rushmore to visit the Black Hills and confirm the company's land claims. During a visit in 1884[16][23] or 1885,[24][25] Rushmore saw Six Grandfathers and asked his guide, Bill Challis, the mountain's name; Challis replied that the mountain didn't have a name, but that it would henceforth be named after Rushmore.[26][18] The name "Mount Rushmore" continued to be used locally, and was officially recognized by the United States Board of Geographic Names in June 1930.[26][18]
Concept, design and funding
By the 1920s, South Dakota had become a U.S. state, and was a popular destination for
Robinson initially approached sculptor Lorado Taft, but Taft was ill at the time and uninterested in Robinson's project. Robinson next sought the help of then-U.S. Senator Peter Norbeck, who had established Custer State Park when he was Governor in 1919. Norbeck cautiously supported Robinson's plan, and Robinson began campaigning for it publicly. Some in the local community also supported Robinson's plan, but many opposed it vigorously.[27]
On August 20, 1924, Robinson wrote to Gutzon Borglum, the sculptor of "Shrine to the Confederacy", asking him to travel to the Black Hills region to determine whether the carving could be accomplished.[27][31] Borglum, who had involved himself with the Ku Klux Klan, one of the Stone Mountain memorial's funders, had been having disagreements with the Stone Mountain Memorial Association, and on September 24, 1924, travelled to South Dakota to meet Robinson.[32][33]
Borglum's original plan was to make the carvings in 150-meter-high granite pillars known as the Needles (Hiŋháŋ Káǧa). However, the eroded Needles were too thin to support sculpting.[18] Also, some in the Black Hills such as Cora Babbitt Johnson, protested against carving the Needles on environmental and religious grounds.[27] On August 14, 1925, Borglum summitted Black Elk Peak while scouting alternative locations,[26] and reportedly said upon seeing Mount Rushmore, "America will march along that skyline."[31] He chose Mount Rushmore, a grander location, partly because it faced southeast and enjoyed maximum exposure to sunlight.[18]
Borglum rejected Robinson's original plan of depicting characters from the
Senator Norbeck and Congressman William Williamson of South Dakota introduced bills in early 1925 for permission to use federal land,[35] which passed easily. South Dakota legislation had less support, only passing narrowly on its third attempt, which Governor Carl Gunderson signed into law on March 5, 1925. Private funding came slowly and Borglum invited President Calvin Coolidge to an August 1927 dedication ceremony, at which he promised federal funding. Congress passed the Mount Rushmore National Memorial Act, signed by Coolidge, which authorized up to $250,000 in matching funds. The 1929 presidential transition to Herbert Hoover delayed funding until an initial federal match of $54,670.56 was acquired.[36]
Carving started in 1927 and ended in 1941 with no fatalities.[37][38]
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Mount Rushmore (Six Grandfathers) before construction, c. 1905
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Early model of the design
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Construction underway, with Jefferson to the left of Washington before unstable rock necessitated a change in the design
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Original mockup of the Mount Rushmore statue "before funding ran out"[39]
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Construction of George Washington's likeness
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Closeup view of final sculptures
Construction
Between October 4, 1927, and October 31, 1941, Gutzon Borglum and 400 workers[40] sculpted the colossal 60-foot-high (18 m) carvings of United States Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln to represent the first 150 years of American history. These presidents were selected by Borglum because of their role in preserving the Republic and expanding its territory.[31][30] The carving of Mount Rushmore involved the use of dynamite, followed by the process of "honeycombing", where workers drill holes close together, allowing small pieces to be removed by hand.[41] In total, about 450,000 short tons (410,000 t) of rock were blasted off the mountainside.[42] The image of Thomas Jefferson was originally intended to appear in the area at Washington's right, but after the work there was begun, the rock was found to be unsuitable, so the work on Jefferson's figure was dynamited, and a new figure was sculpted to Washington's left.[31]
The chief carver of the mountain was Luigi Del Bianco, an artisan and stonemason who emigrated to the U.S. from Friuli in Italy and was chosen to work on this project because of his understanding of sculptural language and ability to imbue emotion in the carved portraits.[3][4]
In 1933, the National Park Service took Mount Rushmore under its jurisdiction. Julian Spotts helped with the project by improving its infrastructure. For example, he had the tram upgraded so it could reach the top of Mount Rushmore for the ease of workers. By July 4, 1934, Washington's face had been completed and was dedicated. The face of Thomas Jefferson was dedicated in 1936, and Abraham Lincoln's on September 17, 1937. In 1937, a bill was introduced in Congress to add the head of civil-rights leader Susan B. Anthony, but a rider was passed on an appropriations bill requiring federal funds be used to finish only those heads that had already been started at that time.[43] In 1939, the face of Theodore Roosevelt was dedicated.[44]
The Sculptor's Studio – a display of unique plaster models and tools related to the sculpting – was built in 1939 under the direction of Borglum. Borglum died from an
Nick Clifford, the last remaining carver, died in November 2019 at age 98.[47]
Later developments
On October 15, 1966, Mount Rushmore was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. A 500-word essay giving the history of the United States by Nebraska student William Andrew Burkett was selected as the college-age group winner in a 1934 competition, and that essay was placed on the Entablature on a bronze plate in 1973.[43][50] In 1991, President George H. W. Bush officially dedicated Mount Rushmore.[51]
In 2004, Gerard Baker was appointed superintendent of the park, the first and so far only Native American in that role. Baker stated that he will open up more "avenues of interpretation", and that the four presidents are "only one avenue and only one focus."[52]
Proposals to add additional faces
In 1937, when the sculpture was not yet complete, a bill in Congress supporting the addition of women's rights activist Susan B. Anthony failed. When the sculpture was completed in 1941, the sculptors said that the remaining rock was not suitable for additional carvings. This stance was shared by RESPEC, an engineering firm charged with monitoring the stability of the rock in 1989. However, proposals of additional sculptures have been made regardless. These include John F. Kennedy after his assassination in 1963, and Ronald Reagan in 1985 and 1999 – the latter proposal receiving a debate in Congress at the time.[53] Barack Obama was asked about his own potential addition in 2008 and he joked that his ears were too large.[54]
Donald Trump has on occasion expressed interest in his own addition to the mountain. During a 2017 rally in Ohio, he said "I'd ask whether or not you some day think I will be on Mount Rushmore. If I did it joking – totally joking, having fun – the fake news media will say, 'He believes he should be on Mount Rushmore.' So I won't say it." South Dakota Governor Kristi Noem, described the potential addition as Trump's "dream" in 2018.[55]
Tourism
Year | Visitors |
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1941 | 393,000 |
1950 | 740,499 |
1960 | 1,067,000 |
1970 | 1,965,700 |
1980 | 1,284,888 |
1990 | 1,671,673 |
2000 | 1,868,876 |
2010 | 2,331,237 |
2020 | 2,074,986 |
Tourism is South Dakota's second-largest industry, and Mount Rushmore is the state's top tourist attraction.[56] 2,185,447 people visited the park in 2012.[1]
The popularity of the location, as with many other national monuments, derives from its immediate recognizability; "there are no substitutes for iconic resources such as the Statue of Liberty, the Lincoln Memorial, or Mount Rushmore. These locations are one of a kind places".[57] However, Mount Rushmore also provides access to a surrounding environment of wilderness, which distinguishes it from the typical proximity of national monuments to urban centers like Washington, D.C., and New York City.[57]
In the 1950s and 1960s, local Lakota Sioux elder Benjamin Black Elk (son of medicine man Black Elk, who had been present at the Battle of the Little Bighorn) was known as the "Fifth Face of Mount Rushmore", posing for photographs with thousands of tourists daily in his native attire. The South Dakota State Historical Society notes that he was one of the most photographed people in the world over that 20-year period.[58]
Hall of Records
Borglum originally envisioned a grand Hall of Records where America's greatest historical documents and artifacts could be protected and shown to tourists. He managed to start the project, but cut only 70 feet (21 m) into the rock before work stopped in 1939 to focus on the faces. In 1998, a repository was constructed inside the mouth of the cave housing 16 enamel panels with biographical and historical information about Mount Rushmore as well as the texts of the documents Borglum wanted to preserve there. The repository consists of a teakwood box inside of a titanium vault placed in the ground with a granite capstone.[59][60]
Conservation
The ongoing conservation of the site is overseen by the National Park Service.
In 1998, electronic monitoring devices were installed to track movement in the topology of the sculpture to an accuracy of three millimeters. The site was digitally recorded in 2009 using a terrestrial laser scanning method as part of the international Scottish Ten project, providing a high-resolution record to aid the conservation of the site. This data was made publicly accessible online.[65]
Ecology
The flora and fauna of Mount Rushmore are similar to those of the rest of the Black Hills region of South Dakota. Birds including the
At lower elevations,
The area receives about 18 inches (460 mm) of precipitation on average per year, enough to support abundant animal and plant life. Trees and other plants help to control surface runoff. Dikes, seeps, and springs help to dam up water that is flowing downhill, providing watering spots for animals. In addition, stones like sandstone and limestone help to hold groundwater, creating aquifers.[72]
A 2016 investigation by the U.S. Geological Survey found unusually high concentrations of perchlorate in the surface water and groundwater of the area.[73] A sample collected from a stream had a maximum perchlorate concentration of 54 micrograms per liter, roughly 270 times higher than samples taken from locations outside the area.[74] The report concluded the probable cause of the contamination was the aerial fireworks displays that had taken place on Independence Days from 1998 to 2009.[75][73] The National Park Service also reported that at least 27 forest fires around Mount Rushmore in that same period (1998 to 2009) have been caused by fireworks displays.[76]
A study of the fire scars present in
Geography
Geology
Mount Rushmore is largely composed of granite. The memorial is carved on the northwest margin of the Black Elk Peak granite batholith in the Black Hills of South Dakota, so the geologic formations of the heart of the Black Hills region are also evident at Mount Rushmore. The batholith magma intruded into the pre-existing mica schist rocks during the Proterozoic, 1.6 billion years ago.[78] Coarse grained pegmatite dikes are associated with the granite intrusion of Black Elk Peak and are visibly lighter in color, thus explaining the light-colored streaks on the foreheads of the presidents.[citation needed]
The Black Hills granites were exposed to erosion during the Neoproterozoic, but were later buried by sandstone and other sediments during the Cambrian. Remaining buried throughout the Paleozoic, they were re-exposed again during the Laramide orogeny around 70 million years ago.[78] The Black Hills area was uplifted as an elongated geologic dome.[79] Subsequent erosion stripped the granite of the overlying sediments and the softer adjacent schist. Some schist does remain and can be seen as the darker material just below the sculpture of Washington.[citation needed]
The tallest mountain in the region is Black Elk Peak (7,242 ft or 2,207 m). Borglum selected Mount Rushmore as the site for several reasons. The rock of the mountain is composed of smooth, fine-grained granite. The durable granite erodes only 1 inch (25 mm) every 10,000 years, thus was more than sturdy enough to support the sculpture and its long-term exposure.[31] The mountain's height of 5,725 feet (1,745 m) above sea level[8] made it suitable, and because it faces the southeast, the workers also had the advantage of sunlight for most of the day.
It is not possible to add another president to the memorial, because the rock that surrounds the existing faces is not suitable for additional carving,[80] and because additional sculpting could create instabilities in the existing carvings.[81]
Soils
The Mount Rushmore area is underlain by well drained alfisol soils of very gravelly loam (Mocmount) to silt loam (Buska) texture, brown to dark grayish brown.[82]
Climate
Mount Rushmore has a dry-winter humid continental climate (Dwb in the Köppen climate classification). It is inside a USDA Plant Hardiness Zone of 5a, meaning certain plant life in the area can withstand a low temperature of no less than −20 °F (−29 °C).[83]
The two wettest months of the year are May and June. Orographic lift causes brief but strong afternoon thunderstorms during the summer.[84]
Climate data for Mount Rushmore National Memorial (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1962–present) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °F (°C) | 70 (21) |
68 (20) |
78 (26) |
85 (29) |
93 (34) |
99 (37) |
100 (38) |
99 (37) |
97 (36) |
86 (30) |
75 (24) |
68 (20) |
100 (38) |
Mean maximum °F (°C) | 57.8 (14.3) |
57.3 (14.1) |
65.2 (18.4) |
72.9 (22.7) |
81.5 (27.5) |
89.2 (31.8) |
92.7 (33.7) |
90.9 (32.7) |
87.2 (30.7) |
77.0 (25.0) |
65.4 (18.6) |
57.2 (14.0) |
94.0 (34.4) |
Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 36.8 (2.7) |
36.3 (2.4) |
44.2 (6.8) |
50.2 (10.1) |
59.6 (15.3) |
71.1 (21.7) |
78.7 (25.9) |
77.5 (25.3) |
69.1 (20.6) |
55.0 (12.8) |
44.4 (6.9) |
36.6 (2.6) |
55.0 (12.8) |
Daily mean °F (°C) | 27.8 (−2.3) |
27.3 (−2.6) |
34.8 (1.6) |
41.0 (5.0) |
50.6 (10.3) |
61.5 (16.4) |
68.9 (20.5) |
67.8 (19.9) |
59.4 (15.2) |
45.9 (7.7) |
35.7 (2.1) |
28.2 (−2.1) |
45.7 (7.6) |
Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 18.8 (−7.3) |
18.4 (−7.6) |
25.4 (−3.7) |
31.8 (−0.1) |
41.5 (5.3) |
51.9 (11.1) |
59.1 (15.1) |
58.0 (14.4) |
49.6 (9.8) |
36.8 (2.7) |
27.0 (−2.8) |
19.8 (−6.8) |
36.5 (2.5) |
Mean minimum °F (°C) | −5.8 (−21.0) |
−4.2 (−20.1) |
3.8 (−15.7) |
15.3 (−9.3) |
26.9 (−2.8) |
39.8 (4.3) |
48.1 (8.9) |
45.9 (7.7) |
32.2 (0.1) |
17.2 (−8.2) |
6.8 (−14.0) |
−2.2 (−19.0) |
−12.6 (−24.8) |
Record low °F (°C) | −38 (−39) |
−29 (−34) |
−16 (−27) |
1 (−17) |
14 (−10) |
27 (−3) |
40 (4) |
33 (1) |
19 (−7) |
−4 (−20) |
−12 (−24) |
−31 (−35) |
−38 (−39) |
Average precipitation inches (mm) | 0.48 (12) |
0.76 (19) |
1.35 (34) |
2.62 (67) |
4.80 (122) |
3.58 (91) |
3.59 (91) |
2.29 (58) |
1.76 (45) |
1.80 (46) |
0.59 (15) |
0.50 (13) |
24.12 (613) |
Average snowfall inches (cm) | 7.2 (18) |
8.9 (23) |
9.6 (24) |
13.1 (33) |
1.5 (3.8) |
0.2 (0.51) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.9 (2.3) |
4.9 (12) |
6.4 (16) |
6.6 (17) |
59.3 (151) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 5.1 | 6.1 | 6.7 | 9.7 | 13.6 | 13.4 | 12.4 | 10.5 | 7.7 | 7.1 | 4.5 | 4.7 | 101.5 |
Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) | 4.5 | 4.9 | 3.9 | 3.4 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 1.7 | 3.0 | 4.0 | 26.5 |
Source: |
In popular culture
Mount Rushmore has been depicted in multiple films, comic books, and television series.
Land dispute
The Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) had granted the Black Hills to the Lakota people in perpetuity, but the United States took the area from the tribe after the Great Sioux War of 1876. Members of the American Indian Movement led an occupation of the monument in 1971, naming it "Mount Crazy Horse", and Lakota holy man John Fire Lame Deer planted a prayer staff on top of the mountain. Lame Deer said that the staff formed a symbolic shroud over the presidents' faces "which shall remain dirty until the treaties concerning the Black Hills are fulfilled."[95]
The 1980
Construction on the Crazy Horse Memorial began in 1940 elsewhere in the Black Hills. Ostensibly to commemorate the Native American leader and as a response to Mount Rushmore, if completed it would be larger than Mount Rushmore. The Crazy Horse Memorial Foundation has rejected offers of federal funds. Its construction has the support of some Lakota chiefs, but it is the subject of controversy, even among Native American tribes.[100]
Legacy and commemoration
Borglum titled his sculpture at Mount Rushmore as the Shrine of Democracy, but the illegal seizure of the Black Hills where the memorial is located has led to some critics to refer to it as the "Shrine of Hypocrisy".[15][101][102][103]
On August 11, 1952, the U.S. Post Office issued the Mount Rushmore Memorial 3-cent
In music, American composer
The Washington Nationals baseball club uses large foam rubber depictions of the "Rushmore Four" in both their marketing campaigns and in a series of in-stadium promotions such as the Presidents Race.[113][114]
See also
- List of colossal sculpture in situ
- List of tallest statues
- List of national memorials of the United States
- List of statues of George Washington
- List of statues of Thomas Jefferson
- List of statues of Abraham Lincoln
- List of sculptures of presidents of the United States
- Presidential memorials in the United States
- Crazy Horse Memorial, another large sculpture in the Black Hills
- Atatürk Mask, another large relief sculpture, although not carved into the rock
References
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1941, the original mockup of Mt. Rushmore before funding ran out
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- ^ Building 31, Mailing Address: 13000 Highway 244; Keystone, Suite 1; May, SD 57751 Phone:574–2523 Park information Phones are answered 7 days a week Hours are 8:00–5:00 October through; mid-August, 8:00–10:00 June through; Us, 8:00–9:00 mid-August through September All times are Mountain Time Contact. "Hall of Records – Mount Rushmore National Memorial (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov.
{{cite web}}
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- ^ a b Freeman, Mary. "Mount Rushmore, South Dakota for Tourists". USA Today. Tysons Corner, VA: Gannett Company. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
- ^ "Amphibians". National Park Service. Retrieved January 4, 2014.
- ^ "Nature & Science- Animals". NPS. November 26, 2006. Retrieved March 17, 2010.
- ^ a b "Mount Rushmore- Flora and Fauna". American Park Network. 2001. Archived from the original on December 12, 2007. Retrieved January 11, 2016.
- ^ "Nature & Science – Plants". NPS. December 6, 2006. Retrieved March 17, 2010.
- ^ Nature & Science- Groundwater. National Park Service. Retrieved April 1, 2006.
- ^ a b "Fireworks Likely Caused Water Contamination at Mount Rushmore". United States Geological Survey. May 2, 2016. Retrieved June 27, 2020.
- ^ "Mt. Rushmore H2O pollution: Fireworks to blame?". WGBA. Associated Press. May 3, 2016.
- ^ Fears, Darryl (May 3, 2016). "Officials knew fireworks at Mount Rushmore could cause a fire. But they didn't expect this". The Washington Post.
- ^ O'Dowd, Peter; Raphelson, Samantha (July 3, 2020). "50 Years After Mount Rushmore Occupation, Native Americans Are 'Still Fighting'". WBUR. Retrieved April 4, 2021.
- ^ Nature & Science- Forests. National Park Service. Retrieved April 1, 2006.
- ^ a b Geologic Activity. National Park Service.
- ^ Irvin, James R. Great Plains Gallery Archived July 20, 2006, at the Wayback Machine (2001). Retrieved March 16, 2006.
- ^ Klinski, Michael (April 24, 2018). "Mount Trumpmore? It's the president's 'dream,' Rep. Kristi Noem says". Argus Leader. Retrieved August 9, 2020.
- ^ Lawrence, Tom (June 26, 2020). "Adding fifth face to Mount Rushmore National Memorial has been political football for decades". Argus Leader. Retrieved August 9, 2020.
- ^ "SoilWeb: An Online Soil Survey". University of California, Davis. Retrieved August 27, 2017.
- ^ "USDA Hardiness Zone Finder". The National Gardening Association. National Gardening Association. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
- ^ "Weather History". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. June 23, 2004. Archived from the original on July 6, 2008. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
- ^ "NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved October 28, 2021.
- ^ "Station: MT RUSHMORE NMEM, SD". U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved October 28, 2021.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4914-0208-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-313-39883-4.
- ^ a b c d Powell, Laura. "Mount Rushmore on the Big Screen". Visit The USA. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
- ^ Freund, Charles Paul (2003). "Big schlock candy Mountain: the many meanings of Mount Rushmore". Reason.
- ^ "9 Famous Pop Culture Spots in the USA You Don't Want to Miss". Visit The USA. Retrieved May 21, 2022.
A variety of films and television shows suggest Mount Rushmore's use as a secret hideout for the government such as in "National Treasure: Book of Secrets" and "Team America: World Police."
- ^ Honeycutt, Kirk (October 15, 2019). "'Team America: World Police': THR's 2004 Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-226-15939-3.
- ^ Walter Metz, "Review: Nebraska. Dir. Alexander Payne. Paramount Vantage, 2013". Middle West Review Volume 1, Number 1, (University of Nebraska Press, Fall 2014), p. 154–55.
- ^ Matthew Glass, "Producing Patriotic Inspiration at Mount Rushmore", Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 62, No. 2. (Summer, 1994), pp. 265–283.
- ^ "United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, 448 U.S. 371 (1980)". Findlaw. Retrieved February 11, 2021.
- ^ "Significant Indian Cases". The United States Department of Justice. United States Government. May 12, 2015. Archived from the original on July 4, 2020. Retrieved July 4, 2020.
- ^ "Why the Sioux Are Refusing $1.3 Billion". PBS NewsHour. August 24, 2011. Retrieved February 11, 2021.
- ^ Tilsen, Nick. "Trump's Mount Rushmore fireworks show is a Fourth of July attack on Indigenous people". NBC News. Retrieved July 3, 2020.
- ISBN 0-671-55392-5
- ISSN 0007-7720.
- ISBN 978-0-7710-4834-0.
- ISBN 978-1-78663-673-7.
- ^ "3c Mt. Rushmore single". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Archived from the original on May 4, 2015. Retrieved July 1, 2014.
- ISBN 0-89487-042-4., p. 289.
- ^ "1991 Mount Rushmore Silver Dollar". Modern Commemoratives. June 10, 2009. Retrieved February 28, 2020.
- ^ "1991 Mount Rushmore Half Dollar Commemorative Coin". June 9, 2009. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
- ^ "1991 Mount Rushmore $5 Gold Commemorative Coin". June 11, 2009. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
- ^ Jim Noles, A Pocketful of History: Four Hundred Years of America—One State Quarter at a Time" (Da Capo Press, May 6, 2008) ASIN B009K44LT8.
- ^ "Michael Daugherty's Mount Rushmore Premieres with the Pacific Symphony and Chorale" Retrieved August 27, 2014.
- ^ Rolli, Bryan (June 16, 2020). "Protest the Hero's Rody Walker: Trump's Vision of Greatness Is America's 'Tragic Flaw'". Loudwire. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
- ^ Slingerland, Calum (June 18, 2020). "Protest the Hero Give American History a Scathing Rewrite on 'Palimpsest'". exclaim.ca. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
- ^ "The history of the Nationals Presidents Race: Who is winning and why". wusa9.com. October 21, 2019. Archived from the original on October 23, 2019.
- ^ "'Teddy' wins for 1st time in 534 races". ESPN. October 3, 2012.
Further reading
- "Making Mount Rushmore". Oh, Ranger!. APN Media. Archived from the original on November 20, 2012. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
- Buckingham, Matthew (Summer 2002). "The Six Grandfathers, Paha Sapa, in the Year 502,002 C.E." Cabinet Magazine. Immaterial Incorporated. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
- Coutant, Arnaud (2014). Les Visages de l'Amérique, les constructeurs d'une démocratie fédérale. Mare et Martin (ISBN 978-2-84934-160-5). French study about the Four Presidents, Life, presidency, influence about American political evolution. (Archived link)
- Del Bianco, Lou. "Luigi Del Bianco: chief stone carver on Mount Rushmore, 1933–1940". Lou Del Bianco. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
- Dobrzynski, Judith H. (July 15, 2006). "A Monumental Achievement". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
- Larner, Jesse (2002). Mount Rushmore: An Icon Reconsidered. New York: Nation Books.
- Taliaferro, John (2002). Great White Fathers: The Story of the Obsessive Quest to Create Mount Rushmore. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-205-3.
- The National Parks: Index 2001–2003. Washington, D.C.: OCLC 53228516.
- "The Six Grandfathers Before It Was Known as Mount Rushmore". Native Hope. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
- "Untold Stories Discussion Guide: Baker and Mount Rushmore" (PDF). The National Parks: America's Best Idea. PBS. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 18, 2015.
- Smith, Rex Alan (2011). The Carving of Mount Rushmore. New York: Abbeville Press. OCLC 784885603.