Mount Tambora

Coordinates: 8°15′S 118°0′E / 8.250°S 118.000°E / -8.250; 118.000
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Mount Tambora
Tomboro
Caldera of Mount Tambora
Highest point
Elevation2,850 m (9,350 ft)[1]
Prominence2,722 m (8,930 ft)[1][2]
Coordinates8°15′S 118°0′E / 8.250°S 118.000°E / -8.250; 118.000
Geography
Mount Tambora is located in Indonesia
Mount Tambora
Mount Tambora
Location in Indonesia
LocationBima & Dompu Regencies, Sanggar peninsula, Sumbawa, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia
Geology
Age of rockLate Pleistocene-recent
Mountain typeTrachybasaltic-trachyandesitic stratovolcano
Volcanic arcSunda Arc
Last eruption1967[1]
Climbing
Easiest routeSoutheast: Doro Mboha
Northwest: Pancasila

Mount Tambora, or Tomboro, is an active

subduction zones beneath it. Before 1815
, its elevation reached more than 4,300 metres (14,100 feet) high, making it one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago.

Tambora

dormancy as it refilled. Volcanic activity reached a peak that year, culminating in an explosive eruption. The explosion was heard on Sumatra island, more than 2,000 kilometres (1,200 miles) away. Heavy volcanic ash rains were observed as far away as Borneo, Sulawesi, Java, and Maluku islands, and the maximum elevation of Tambora was reduced from about 4,300 metres (14,100 ft) to 2,850 metres (9,350 feet). Although estimates vary, the death toll was at least 71,000 people.[3] The eruption contributed to global climate anomalies in the following years, while 1816 became known as the "year without a summer" because of the impact on North American and European weather. In the Northern Hemisphere
, crops failed and livestock died, resulting in the worst famine of the century.

Geographical setting

Mount Tambora and its surroundings as seen from space
View of Mount Rinjani from Mount Tambora. Viewing distance is 165 kilometres (103 mi).

Mount Tambora, also known as Tomboro,[4] is situated in the northern part of Sumbawa island, part of the Lesser Sunda Islands.[5] It is a segment of the Sunda Arc, a chain of volcanic islands that make up the southern chain of the Indonesian archipelago.[6] Tambora forms its own peninsula on Sumbawa, known as the Sanggar peninsula. To the north of the peninsula is the Flores Sea[3] and to the south is the 86 kilometres (53 mi) long and 36 kilometres (22 mi) wide Saleh Bay.[7] At the mouth of Saleh Bay there is an islet called Mojo.[8]

Besides the

archaeologists and biologists. The mountain also attracts tourists for hiking and wildlife activities,[9] though in small numbers.[10] The two nearest cities are Dompu and Bima. There are three concentrations of villages around the mountain slope. At the east is Sanggar village, to the northwest are Doro Peti and Pesanggrahan villages, and to the west is Calabai village.[11]

There are two routes of ascent to the caldera. The first begins at Doro Mboha village on the southeast of the mountain and follows a paved road through a cashew plantation to an elevation of 1,150 metres (3,770 ft). The road terminates at the southern part of the caldera, which at 1,950 metres (6,400 ft) is reachable only by hiking.[11] This location is only one hour from the caldera, and usually serves as a base camp from which volcanic activity can be monitored. The second route starts from Pancasila village at the northwest of the mountain and is only accessible on foot.[11] The 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) hike from Pancasila at 740 metres (2,430 ft) elevation to the caldera of the volcano takes approximately 14 hours with several stops (pos) en route to the top. The trail leads through dense jungle with wildlife such as Elaeocarpus, Asian water monitor, reticulated python, hawks, orange-footed scrubfowl, pale-shouldered cicadabird (Coracina dohertyi), brown and scaly-crowned honeyeater, yellow-crested cockatoo, yellow-ringed white-eye, helmeted friarbird, wild boar, Javan rusa and crab-eating macaques.[12]

History of Mount Tambora

Geological history

Formation

Plate boundaries of Indonesia, with the location of Mount Tambora to the lower right of "11"

Tambora is located 340 kilometres (210 mi) north of the

sea basin about 25,000 years BP.[7]

A high volcanic cone with a single central vent formed before the 1815 eruption, which follows a

Orthopyroxene is absent in the trachyandesites of Tambora.[17] Olivine is most present in the rocks with less than 53 percent SiO2, while it is absent in the more silica-rich volcanics, characterised by the presence of biotite phenocrysts.[18] The mafic series also contain titanium magnetite and the trachybasalts are dominated by anorthosite-rich plagioclase.[19] Rubidium, strontium and phosphorus pentoxide are especially rich in the lavas from Tambora, more than the comparable ones from Mount Rinjani.[20] The lavas of Tambora are slightly enriched in zircon compared with those of Rinjani.[21]

The

subducted sediments, fluids derived from the subducted crust and crystallization processes in magma chambers.[15] 87Sr86Sr ratios of Mount Tambora are similar to those of Mount Rinjani, but lower than those measured at Sangeang Api.[13] Potassium levels of Tambora volcanics exceed 3 weight percent, placing them in the shoshonite range for alkaline series.[22]

Since the 1815 eruption, the lowermost portion contains deposits of interlayered sequences of

lava flows.[14]

Eruptive history

epoch before the 1815 eruption, but the magnitudes of these eruptions are unknown. Their estimated dates are 3910 BC ± 200 years, 3050 BC and 740 AD ± 150 years.[23] An earlier caldera was filled with lava flows starting from 43,000 years BC; two pyroclastic eruptions occurred later and formed the Black Sands and Brown Tuff formations, the last of which was emplaced between about 3895 BC and 800 AD.[15]

In 1812, Mount Tambora became highly active, with its maximum eruptive intensity occurring in April 1815.

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) scale, with a total tephra ejecta volume of up to 1.8 × 1011 cubic metres.[23] Its eruptive characteristics included central vent and explosive eruptions, pyroclastic flows, tsunamis and caldera collapse. This eruption had an effect on global climate. Volcanic activity ceased on 15 July 1815.[23] Activity resumed in August 1819—a small eruption with "flames" and rumbling aftershocks, and was considered to be part of the 1815 eruption.[3]
This eruption was recorded at 2 on the VEI scale.

Around 1880 ± 30 years, eruptions at Mount Tambora have been registered only inside the caldera.

extrusions; this was recorded at two on the VEI scale. This eruption created the Doro Api Toi parasitic cone inside the caldera.[24]

Mount Tambora is still active and minor lava domes and flows have been extruded on the caldera floor during the 19th and 20th centuries.[1] The last eruption was recorded in 1967. However, it was a gentle eruption with a VEI of 0, which means it was non-explosive.[23][25] Another very small eruption was reported in 2011.[26] In August 2011, the alert level for the volcano was raised from level I to level II after increased activity was reported in the caldera, including earthquakes and steam emissions.[27][28]

1815 eruption

Estimated depth of volcanic ashfall during the 1815 eruption—the outermost region (1 cm) reached Borneo and the Sulawesi islands
Main article: 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora

Chronology of the eruption

Before 1815, Mount Tambora had been

dormant for several centuries, as hydrous magma cooled gradually in a closed magma chamber.[6] Inside the chamber, at depths of 1.5 to 4.5 kilometres (0.93 to 2.80 mi), cooling and partial crystallization of the magma exsolved high-pressure magmatic fluid. Overpressure of the chamber of about 4,000 to 5,000 bars (58,000 to 73,000 psi) was generated as temperatures ranged from 700 to 850 °C (1,292 to 1,562 °F).[6] In 1812, the crater began to rumble and generated a dark cloud.[29]

A moderate-sized eruption on 5 April 1815 was followed by thunderous detonation sounds that could be heard in

Molucca Islands, 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) from Mount Tambora. On the morning of 6 April 1815, volcanic ash began to fall in East Java, with faint detonation sounds lasting until 10 April.[29]
What was first thought to be the sound of firing guns was heard on 10 and 11 April on Sumatra island (more than 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) away).[30]

The eruptions intensified at about 7:00 p.m. on the 10th.[29] Three plumes rose and merged.[30] Pieces of pumice of up to 20 centimetres (7.9 in) in diameter rained down at approximately 8 p.m., followed by ash at around 9–10 p.m. The eruption column collapsed, producing hot pyroclastic flows that cascaded down the mountain and towards the sea on all sides of the peninsula, wiping out the village of Tambora. Loud explosions were heard until the next evening, 11 April. The veil of ash spread as far as West Java and South Sulawesi, while a "nitrous odor" was noticeable in Batavia. The heavy tephra-tinged rain did not recede until 17 April.[29] Analysis of various sites on Mount Tambora using ground-penetrating radar has revealed alternations of pumice and ash deposits covered by the pyroclastic surge and flow sediments that vary in thickness regionally.[31]

The eruption is estimated to have had a

Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7.[32] It had 4–10 times the energy of the 1883 Krakatoa eruption.[33] An estimated 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) of pyroclastic trachyandesite was ejected, weighing approximately 1.4×1014 kg.[3] This has left a caldera measuring 6 to 7 kilometres (3.7 to 4.3 mi) across and 600 to 700 metres (2,000 to 2,300 ft) deep.[29] The density of fallen ash in Makassar was 636 kg/m3.[34] Before the explosion, Mount Tambora was approximately 4,300 metres (14,100 ft) high,[29] one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago. After the eruption of 1815, the maximum elevation was reduced to 2,851 metres (9,354 ft).[35]

The 1815 Tambora eruption is the largest and most devastating observed eruption in recorded history; a comparison with other major eruptions is listed below.[3][29][36] The explosion was heard 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) away, and ash deposits were registered at a distance of at least 1,300 kilometres (810 mi). A pitch of darkness was observed as far away as 600 kilometres (370 mi) from the mountain summit for up to two days.[29] Pyroclastic flows spread to distances of about 20 kilometres (12 mi) from the summit and an estimated 9.3–11.8 × 1013 g of stratispheric sulfate aerosols were generated by the eruption.[37]

Aftermath

The island's entire vegetation was destroyed as uprooted trees, mixed with pumice ash, washed into the sea and formed rafts of up to 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) across.

Calcutta, on 1 and 3 October 1815.[3]
Clouds of thick ash still covered the summit on 23 April. Explosions ceased on 15 July, although smoke emissions were still observed as late as 23 August. Flames and rumbling aftershocks were reported in August 1819, four years after the event.

On my trip towards the western part of the island, I passed through nearly the whole of Dompo and a considerable part of Bima. The extreme misery to which the inhabitants have been reduced is shocking to behold. There were still on the road side the remains of several corpses, and the marks of where many others had been interred: the villages almost entirely deserted and the houses fallen down, the surviving inhabitants having dispersed in search of food.
...
Since the eruption, a violent diarrhoea has prevailed in Bima, Dompo, and Sang’ir, which has carried off a great number of people. It is supposed by the natives to have been caused by drinking water which has been impregnated with ashes; and horses have also died, in great numbers, from a similar complaint.

—Lt. Philips, ordered by Sir Stamford Raffles to go to Sumbawa[30]

A moderate

Molucca Islands.[29] The eruption column reached the stratosphere at an altitude of more than 43 kilometres (141,000 ft).[3] Coarser ash particles fell one to two weeks after the eruptions, while finer particles stayed in the atmosphere for months to years at an altitude of 10 to 30 kilometres (33,000 to 98,000 ft).[29] There are various estimates of the volume of ash emitted: a recent study estimates a dense-rock equivalent volume for the ash of 23 ± 3 cubic kilometres (5.52 ± 0.72 cu mi) and a dense-rock equivalent volume of 18 ± 6 cubic kilometres (4.3 ± 1.4 cu mi) for the pyroclastic flows.[38] Longitudinal winds spread these fine particles around the globe, creating optical phenomena. Between 28 June and 2 July, and between 3 September and 7 October 1815, prolonged and brilliantly coloured sunsets and twilights were frequently seen in London, England. Most commonly, pink or purple colours appeared above the horizon at twilight and orange or red near the horizon.[29]

Fatalities

The number of fatalities has been estimated by various sources since the nineteenth century. Swiss botanist

Sir Stamford Raffles,[30] Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies during the event. Tanguy pointed out that there may have been additional victims on Bali and East Java because of famine and disease, and estimated 11,000 deaths from direct volcanic action and 49,000 from post-eruption famine and epidemics.[42] Oppenheimer (2003) estimated at least 71,000 deaths,[3] and numbers as high as 117,000 have been proposed.[36]

Comparison of major volcanic eruptions
Volcano Location Year Column
height (km)		  
VEI
 		 N. hemisphere
summer anomaly (°C)		 Fatalities
Taupō Volcano  New Zealand 181 51 7 ? unlikely
Paektu Mountain  Democratic People's Republic of Korea 946 25 7 ? ?
Mount Samalas  Indonesia 1257 38–43[43] 7[44] −1.2[45] ?
1452/1453 mystery eruption Unknown 1452 ? 7 −0.5 ?
Huaynaputina  Peru 1600 46 6 −0.8 ≈1,400
Mount Tambora  Indonesia 1815 44[46] 7 −0.5 >71,000
Krakatoa  Indonesia 1883 80 6 −0.3 36,600
Santa María Volcano  Guatemala 1902 34 6 no anomaly 7,000–13,000
Novarupta  United States 1912 32 6 −0.4 2
Mount St. Helens  United States 1980 24 5 no anomaly 57
El Chichón  Mexico 1982 32 5 ? >2,000
Nevado del Ruiz  Colombia 1985 27 3 no anomaly 23,000
Mount Pinatubo  Philippines 1991 34 6 −0.5 1,202
Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai  Tonga 2022 58 5–6 ? 6
Sources: Oppenheimer (2003),[3] and Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism Program[47]
Global effects
oxygen isotope seasonal variations. There is an unknown eruption around the 1810s.[48]
See also: Year Without a Summer

The 1815 eruption released 10 to 120 million tons of

polar ice core sulfate concentration method, which calibrated against cores from Greenland and Antarctica
.

In the spring and summer of 1816, a persistent stratospheric sulfate

northern hemisphere suffered extreme weather conditions and 1816 became known as the "year without a summer". Average global temperatures decreased about 0.4 to 0.7 °C (0.7 to 1.3 °F),[29] enough to cause significant agricultural problems around the globe. After 4 June 1816, when there were frosts in Connecticut, cold weather expanded over most of New England. On 6 June 1816, it snowed in Albany, New York and Dennysville, Maine. Similar conditions persisted for at least three months, ruining most crops across North America while Canada experienced extreme cold. Snow fell until 10 June near Quebec City, accumulating to 30 centimetres (12 in).[3]

That year became the second-coldest year in the northern hemisphere since 1400,

oats rose dramatically by 1817.[50]

This climate anomaly has been cited as a reason for the severity of the 1816–19 typhus epidemic in southeast Europe and the eastern Mediterranean.[3] In addition, large numbers of livestock died in New England during the winter of 1816–1817, while cool temperatures and heavy rains led to failed harvests in the British Isles. Families in Wales travelled long distances as refugees, begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat, oat and potato harvests. The crisis was severe in Germany, where food prices rose sharply. Demonstrations at grain markets and bakeries, followed by riots, arson and looting, took place in many European cities. It was the worst famine of the 19th century.[3]

Culture

Size comparison of Mount Tambora ("Pompeii of the East") and Mount Vesuvius ("Pompeii")
Main article: Tambora culture

A human settlement obliterated by the Tambora eruption was discovered in 2004. That summer, a team led by

archaeological dig in Tambora. Over six weeks, they unearthed evidence of habitation about 25 kilometres (16 mi) west of the caldera, deep in jungle, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from shore. The team excavated 3 metres (9.8 ft) of deposits of pumice and ash.[51] The scientists used ground-penetrating radar to locate a small buried house which contained the remains of two adults, bronze bowls, ceramic pots, iron tools and other artifacts.[51] Tests revealed that objects had been carbonized by the heat of the magma. Sigurdsson dubbed the find the "Pompeii of the East",[52][53] and media reports referred to the "Lost Kingdom of Tambora".[54][55] Sigurdsson intended to return to Tambora in 2007 to search for the rest of the villages, and hopefully to find a palace.[51] Many villages in the area had converted to Islam in the 17th century, but the structures uncovered so far do not show Islamic influence.[54]

Based on the artifacts found, such as

sappan wood (for producing red dye), and sandalwood (for incense and medications). The area was thought to be highly productive agriculturally.[51]

The

Papuan languages found 500 kilometres (310 mi) or more to the east.[56]

The eruption is captured in latter-day folklore, which explains the cataclysm as divine retribution. A local ruler is said to have incurred the wrath of Allah by feeding dog meat to a hajji and killing him.[10] This is expressed in a poem written around 1830:

Ecosystem

The floor of the caldera of Mount Tambora, looking north
Tephra layers near the caldera (left) and summit (background) of Mount Tambora

A team led by the Swiss botanist Heinrich Zollinger arrived on Sumbawa in 1847. Zollinger sought to study the area of eruption and its effects on the local ecosystem. He was the first person after the eruption to ascend the summit, which was still covered by smoke. As Zollinger climbed, his feet sank several times through a thin surface crust into a warm layer of powder-like sulfur. Some vegetation had regrown, including trees on the lower slope. A Casuarina forest was noted at 2,200 to 2,550 metres (7,220 to 8,370 ft), while several Imperata cylindrica grasslands were also found.[57] In August 2015 a team of Georesearch Volcanedo Germany followed the way used by Zollinger and explored this way for the first time since 1847. Because of the length of the distance to be travelled on foot, the partly very high temperatures and the lack of water it was a particular challenge for the team of Georesearch Volcanedo.[58]

Resettlement of the area began in 1907, and a coffee plantation was established in the 1930s in the Pekat village on the northwestern slope.

Edelweiss and Wahlenbergia.[10]

An 1896 survey records 56 species of birds including the

cagebird trade by the local people. Orange-footed scrubfowl are hunted for food. This bird exploitation has resulted in population declines, and the yellow-crested cockatoo is nearing extinction on Sumbawa island.[59]

A commercial

flying foxes and species of reptiles and birds can be found.[10] In 2015, the conservation area protecting the mountain's ecosystem was upgraded to a national park.[60][61]

Exploration of the caldera floor

Zollinger (1847), van Rheden (1913) and W. A. Petroeschevsky (1947) could only observe the caldera floor from the crater rim. In 2013, a German research team (Georesearch Volcanedo Germany) for the first time carried out a longer expedition into this caldera, about 1300 m deep, and with the help of a native team climbed down the southern caldera wall, reaching the caldera floor while experiencing extreme conditions. The team stayed in the caldera for nine days. People had reached the caldera floor only in a few cases as the descent down the steep wall is difficult and dangerous, subject to earthquakes, landslides and rockfalls. Moreover, only relatively short stays on the caldera floor had been possible because of logistical problems, so that extensive studies had been impossible. The investigation program of Georesearch Volcanedo on the caldera floor included researching the visible effects of smaller eruptions which had taken place since 1815, gas measurements, studies of flora and fauna and measurement of weather data. Especially striking was the relatively high activity of Doro Api Toi ("Gunung Api Kecil" means "small volcano") in the southern part of the caldera and the gases escaping under high pressure on the lower north-east wall. Besides the team discovered near the Doro Api Toi a lavadome which had not yet been mentioned in scientific studies. The team called this new discovery "Adik Api Toi (Indonesian "adik": younger brother). Later this lavadome was called by the Indonesians "Doro Api Bou" ("new volcano"). This lavadome probably appeared in 2011/2012 when there was an increased seismic activity and probably volcanic activity on the caldera floor (there is no exact information about the caldera floor at that time). In 2014 the same research team carried out a further expedition into the caldera and set a new record: over 12 days the investigations of 2013 were continued.[58]

An infrared image of Mount Tambora (north is on the left)

Monitoring

Indonesia's population has been increasing rapidly since the 1815 eruption. In 2020, the population of the country reached 270 million people, of which 56% concentrated on the island of Java.[62] An event as significant as the 1815 eruption would impact about eight million people.[63]

seismograph. There has been no significant increase in seismic activity since the 1880 eruption. Monitoring is continuously performed inside the caldera, with a focus on the parasitic cone Doro Api Toi.[65]

The directorate created a

disaster mitigation map for Mount Tambora, which designates two zones for an eruption: a dangerous zone and a cautious zone.[64] The dangerous zone identifies areas that would be directly affected by pyroclastic flows, lava flows or pyroclastic falls. It includes areas such as the caldera and its surroundings, a span of up to 58.7 square kilometres (14,500 acres) where habitation is prohibited. The cautious zone consists of land that might be indirectly affected, either by lahar flows and other pumice stones. The size of the cautious area is 185 square kilometres (46,000 acres), and includes Pasanggrahan, Doro Peti, Rao, Labuan Kenanga, Gubu Ponda, Kawindana Toi and Hoddo villages. A river, called Guwu, at the southern and northwest part of the mountain is also included in the cautious zone.[64]

Panorama

Panorama of the caldera of Mount Tambora, July 2017

References

Notes

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Bibliography

External links

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