Mountaineering
Mountaineering, mountain climbing, or alpinism
Unlike most sports, mountaineering lacks widely applied formal rules, regulations, and governance; mountaineers adhere to a large variety of techniques and philosophies (including
History
Early mountaineering
Humans have been present in mountains since prehistory. The remains of Ötzi, who lived in the 4th millennium BC, were found in a glacier in the Ötztal Alps.[13] However, the highest mountains were rarely visited early on, and were often associated with supernatural or religious concepts.[14] Nonetheless, there are many documented examples of people climbing mountains prior to the formal development of the sport in the 19th century, although many of these stories are sometimes considered fictional or legendary.[8]
The famous poet
For most of antiquity, climbing mountains was a practical or symbolic activity, usually undertaken for economic, political, or religious purposes. A commonly cited example is the 1492 ascent of Mont Aiguille (2,085 m (6,841 ft)) by Antoine de Ville, a French military officer and lord of Domjulien and Beaupré.[16] Because ropes, ladders and iron hooks were used, and because it was the first climb of any technical difficulty to be officially verified, this ascent is widely recognized as being the birth of mountaineering.[17]
Conrad Gessner, A mid-16th Century physician, botanist and naturalist from Switzerland, is widely recognized as being the first person to hike and climb for sheer pleasure.[17]
In the
The Enlightenment and the Golden Age of Alpinism
The
By the early 19th century, many of the alpine peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813.[14] In 1808, Marie Paradis became the first woman to climb Mont Blanc, followed in 1838 by Henriette d'Angeville.[19]
The beginning of mountaineering as a sport in the UK is generally dated to the ascent of the
One of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 by a party led by English illustrator Edward Whymper, in which four of the party members fell to their deaths. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a large body of professional guides, equipment, and methodologies.[16]
In the early years of the "
Expansion around the world
In the 19th century, the focus of mountaineering turned towards mountains beyond the Alps. One of the earliest mountain areas to be explored beyond the Alps in the 19th century were the mountains of Norway—particularly Jotunheimen—where British mountaineers such as William Cecil Slingsby, Harold Raeburn and Howard Priestman were early pioneers. Slingsby's book Norway, the Northern Playground contributed greatly to the popularization of mountaineering in Norway among the international mountaineering community.[26] Around the turn of the century, a young generation of Norwegian mountaineers such as George Paus, Eilert Sundt and Kristian Tandberg appeared, and later founded Norsk Tindeklub, the third oldest mountaineering association in the world.[27] By the turn of the 20th century, mountaineering had acquired a more international flavour.[28]
In 1897
The last frontier: The Himalayas
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The last[
In 1899, 1903, 1906, and 1908 American mountaineer Fanny Bullock Workman (one of the first professional female mountaineers) made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (23,300 ft (7,100 m)). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Charles Granville Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them.[32]
In 1902 the Eckenstein–Crowley Expedition, led by English mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and English occultist Aleister Crowley was the first to attempt to scale K2. They reached 22,000 feet (6,700 m) before turning back due to weather and other mishaps. Undaunted, in 1905 Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world, in an attempt which Isserman, Angas Weaver and Molenaar describe as "misguided" and "lamentable" due to Crowley's many failings as an expedition leader.[32]
Eckenstein was also a pioneer in developing new equipment and climbing methods. He started using shorter ice axes that could be used single-handedly, designed the modern crampons, and improved on the nail patterns used for the climbing boots.[33]
By the 1950s, all the
Just a few months later,
Today
Long the domain of the wealthy elite and their agents, the emergence of the middle-class in the 19th and 20th centuries resulted in mass interest in mountaineering. It became a popular pastime and hobby of many people.
Organisation
 | This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2021) |
Activities
There are different activities associated with the sport.
- Traditional mountaineering involves identifying a specific mountain and route to climb, and executing the plan by whatever means appropriate. A mountain summit is almost always the goal. This activity is strongly associated with cramponson glaciers and similar terrain.
- Ski mountaineering involves skiing on mountainous terrain, usually in terrain much more rugged than typical cross-country skiing. Unlike traditional mountaineering, routes are less well-defined and summiting may not be the main goal.
- 4000m peaks of the Alps.
- Enchainment is climbing more than one significant summit in one outing, usually on the same day.
- Climbing via ferratas involves traversing ladder-like paths on highly exposed terrain.
- Ice climbing which involves proceeding on steep sections of blank ice with crampons and ice axes. This activity often requires progressing on steep and blank sections of ice. Most mountaineers have to rely on ice climbing skills to climb upon the higher peaks in the European Alps, Himalayas and Canadian ranges.
Rules and governance
Mountaineering lacks formal rules – though appropriately empowered bodies make many pertaining to specific use of mountains and practices on them. In theory, any person may climb a mountain and call themself a mountaineer. In practice, the sport is defined by the safe and necessary use of technical skills in mountainous terrain: in particular, roped climbing and snow travel abilities. A variety of techniques have been developed to help people climb mountains that are widely applied among practitioners of the sport.[37][38]
Despite its lack of defined rules and non-competitive nature, certain aspects of mountaineering have much of the trappings of an organized sport, with recognition of specific climbing activities – including climbing wall-based competition – by the International Olympic Committee; on a club level, the prominent international sport federation the UIAA counts numerous national alpine clubs as its members, while others, such as The Mountaineers and the French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing, remain independent.
The premier award in mountaineering is the privately granted
Terrain and techniques
Mountaineering techniques vary greatly depending on location, season, terrain, and route. Both techniques and hazards vary by terrain, spanning trails, rock, snow, and ice. Mountaineers must possess adequate food, water, information, equipment, stamina, and skill to complete their tasks.[38]
Walk-up terrain
The term "walk-up" or "trek" is used to describe terrain in which no technical equipment is needed.[40] To traverse this terrain, mountaineers hike long distances to a base camp or the beginning of rough terrain, either following trails or using navigation techniques to travel cross-country. Hiking may be a strenuous activity, and adequate physical fitness and familiarity with the wilderness is necessary to complete a hike; it is also a prerequisite of success in all aspects of mountaineering.[38]
Rock
Alpine
Once anchored, the leader will then belay the climber coming up from below. Once the follower reaches the leader, the leader will often transfer all necessary protection devices (known as a rack) to the follower. The follower then becomes the leader and will ascend the next pitch. This process will continue until the climbers either reach the top, or run into different terrain.[9][38]
For extremely vertical rocks, or to overcome certain logistical challenges, climbers may use aid climbing techniques. This involves the use of equipment, such as ladders, fixed lines, and ascenders to help the climber push themself up the rock.[9]
In alpine climbing, it is common for climbers to see routes of mixed terrain. This means climbers may need to move efficiently from climbing glacier, to rock, to ice, back and forth in a number of variations.[38]
Snow and ice
Compacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress on foot. Frequently
Ascending and descending a steep snow slope safely requires the use of an
It is not always wise for climbers to form a rope team, since one falling climber may pull the entire team off the mountain. However, the risks of individual, unprotected travel are often so great that groups have no choice but to form a rope team.[38]
For example, when traveling over
For extremely slippery or steep snow, ice, and mixed rock and ice terrain climbers must use more advanced techniques, called ice climbing or mixed climbing. Specialized tools such as ice screws and ice picks help climbers build anchors and move up the ice, as well as traditional rock climbing equipment for anchoring in mixed terrain. Often, mountaineers climbing steep snow or mixed snowy rock terrain will not use a fixed belay. Instead, each climber on the team will climb at the same time while attached to anchors, in groups of two. This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet which also allows for greater speed than the traditional technique of belaying one climber at a time. This technique is known as simul-climbing or a running belay and is sometimes also used on ice, however, the risk of dropping frequently displaced ice on the lower team member(s) limits its usefulness on ice. Traditional belays are also used; in this case, this is sometimes necessary due to ice fall hazard, steepness, or other factors.[38]
Shelter
Climbers use a few different forms of shelter depending on the situation and conditions; alpine shelters or arctic shelters. Shelter is a very important aspect of safety for the climber as weather in the mountains may be very unpredictable. Tall mountains may require many days of camping.[38]
Short trips lasting less than a day generally do not require shelter, although for safety, most mountaineers will carry an emergency shelter, such a light bivouac sack.[38]
Camping
Typical shelters used for camping include tents and bivouac sacks. The ability of these shelters to provide protection from the elements is dependent on their design. Mountaineers who climb in areas with cold weather or snow and ice will use more heavy-duty shelters than those who climb in more forgiving environments.[38]
In remote locations, mountaineers will set up a "base camp," which is an area used for staging attempts at nearby summits. Base camps are positioned to be relatively safe from harsh terrain and weather. Where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountain will have additional camps above base camp. For popular mountains, base camps may be at a fixed location and become famous. The Everest base camps and Camp Muir are among the most famous base camps.[citation needed]
Hut
Camping is not always an option, or may not be suitable if a mountain is close to civilization. Some regions may legally prohibit primitive camping due to concern for the environment, or due to issues with crowds. In lieu of camping, mountaineers may choose to stay in mountain huts.
The European alpine regions, in particular, have a large network of huts. Such huts exist at many different heights, including in the high mountains themselves – in extremely remote areas, more rudimentary shelters may exist. The mountain huts are of varying size and quality, but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests are expected to bring and use their own sleeping bag liners. The facilities are usually rudimentary, but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing the weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall. Huts also may have a part that is always open, but unstaffed, a so-called winter hut.[41]
When open and staffed, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on a voluntary basis by members of alpine clubs. The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals, both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisingly wide, given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-based snacks (such as candy bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at the hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided. Booking for overnight stays at huts is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts, even with more than 100 bed spaces, may be full during good weather and at weekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation is advised as a matter of courtesy – and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they plan to walk to next. Most huts may be contacted by telephone and most take credit cards as a means of payment.[41]
In the UK the term "hut" is used for any cottage or cabin used as a base for walkers or climbers. These are mostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members or visiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanent staff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating. In the Scottish Highlands small simple unstaffed shelters without cooking facilities known as "bothies" are maintained to break up cross country long routes and act as base camps to certain mountains.[42]
Snow cave
Where conditions permit,
Safety and hazards
In terms of objective hazards, the dangers mountaineers face include loose or falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses, and the dangers from altitude and weather.[43]
From 1947 to 2018 in the United States "2,799 people were reported to be involved in mountaineering accidents and 43% of these accidents resulted in death."[44] Climbers themselves are responsible for nearly all climbing accidents.[38]
When planning and preparing for a trip, safe climbers know what hazards to look for and how to recognize them. In situations where hazards are not able to be avoided, the climber must use their decision-making skills to mitigate those hazards. Climbers improve upon their ability to become a safe decision maker and recognize hazards by receiving proper education, training, practice, and experience as well as learning how to spot personal bias.[38]
Altitude
Rapid ascent can lead to altitude sickness.[43][45] The best treatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto at high altitude is "climb high, sleep low", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lower elevation to sleep. In the Andes, the chewing of coca leaves has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms.[46]
Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE (high-altitude cerebral edema) and HAPE (high-altitude pulmonary edema), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours.[43][45][47]
In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe.
Exposure to hot environments or activities involving exertion cause heat to build up in the body. A
Problems that can arise from this type of exposure include heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. Common symptoms of heat exhaustion include headaches, cool and clammy skin, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, thirst, and rapid pulse. The best treatment is resting with feet elevated, replenishing fluids, and removing excess clothing.[38][50]
Common symptoms of heat stroke can be an altered state of mind, rapid pulse and respiratory rate, headache, hot skin, loss of coordination, and possible seizures. This is a life-threatening illness that must be dealt with right away. While mountaineering, snow and ice can be used to cool the body and head.[38][50]
In certain environmental conditions body heat can be lost due to evaporation, radiation, convection, and conduction. A cold-related illness can occur when that body heat is lost.[51]
Problems that can arise from the cold include wind chill, hypothermia, frost nip, frostbite, and immersion foot.[38]
The best treatment for hypothermia is to deal with it before it occurs, using preventative measures instead of waiting for symptoms to appear. Mountaineering requires a slower pace to avoid sweating and fatigue that could lead to these dangerous conditions. Other tips for preventing hypothermia include staying well fed and hydrated, putting on more clothes when feeling cold, and wearing adequate equipment to keep warm and dry.[51][52]
Styles of mountaineering
There are two main styles of mountaineering:
Expedition style
The alpine style contrasts with "expedition style". With this style, climbers will carry large amounts of equipment and provisions up and down the mountain, slowly making upward progress. Climbing in an expedition style is preferred if the summit is very high or distant from civilization. Mountaineers who use this style are usually, but not always, part of a large team of climbers and support staff (such as porters and guides). To cover large distances with their massive amounts of gear, sleds and pack animals are commonly used. Climbers will set up multiple camps along the mountain, and will haul their gear up the mountain multiple times, returning to a lower camp after each haul until all the gear is at a higher camp; and repeating this procedure until they reach the summit. This technique is also helpful for acclimatization.
- Uses multiple trips between camps to carry supplies up to higher camps
- Group sizes are often larger than alpine style climbs because more supplies are carried between camps.
- Fixed lines are often used to minimize the danger involved in continually moving between camps.
- For the highest mountains, supplemental oxygenis frequently used.
- There is a higher margin of safety in relation to equipment, food, time, and ability to wait out storms at high camps.
- Avoidance of being trapped in storms at high altitudes and being forced to descend in treacherous avalanche conditions
- Possible higher exposure to objective hazards such as avalanches or rockfall, due to slower travel times between camps
- Higher capital expenditures and a longer time scale
Alpine style
Alpine style, or informal variations of it, is the most common form of mountaineering today. It involves a single, straightforward climb of the mountain, with no backtracking. This style is most suited for medium-sized mountain areas close to civilization with elevations of 2,000–5,000 m (6,600–16,400 ft), such as the Alps or the Rocky Mountains. Alpine style ascents have been done throughout history on extreme altitude (above 5,000 m) peaks also, albeit in lower volume to expedition style ascents. Climbers generally carry their loads between camps without backtracking, in a single push for the summit. If the summit is reachable from the base camp or trailhead within one day, then alpine-style mountaineers will not change camps at all, and only carry the slightest of loads (necessary nourishment and equipment) up to the summit. "Light and fast" is the mantra of the alpine mountaineer.[38]
- Climbers climb the route only once, bringing their own supplies; there is no camp-stocking.
- Fewer supplies are used on the climb, therefore fewer personnel are needed.
- Rapid Alpine-style ascents do not leave the climber exposed to hazards (such as accidents, deteriorating health at altitude, and avalanches of snow or rock) as long as an expedition-style climb; however, they also leave less time for acclimatization.
- For the highest mountains, supplemental oxygenis rarely used, or used more sparingly.
- Danger of being trapped at high altitude due to storms, potentially being exposed to HAPE or HACE
- Lower capital expenditures and a shorter time scale
See also
- Exploration of the High Alps
- Glossary of climbing terms
- Hazards in the Rocky Mountains
- Highest unclimbed mountain
- Index of climbing topics
- Lead climbing
- List of climbers and mountaineers
- List of deaths on eight-thousanders
- List of first ascents
- List of mountaineering equipment brands
- Mountain film
- Mountain rescue
- Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills
- Peak bagging
- Ski mountaineering
- Snow goggles
- Piolet d'Or
- Snow Leopard award
- World altitude record (mountaineering)
- National Outdoor Leadership School
References
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- ^ "UIAA Activities". UIAA. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2015.
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- ^ Description of the Discovery Archived 13 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine of Ötzi at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology web site
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Cox, Steven M.; Fulsaas, Kris, eds. (2009) [2003]. ISBN 978-0-89886-828-9.
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{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - S2CID 247361980. Archived from the originalon 11 July 2022. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
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Further reading
- OCLC 181424034.
- OCLC 41326318.
- Unsworth, Walt (1994). Hold the heights: the foundations of mountaineering. Seattle: The Mountaineers. OCLC 28547900.
- "::: The Mountaineers Photograph Album Collection :::". content.lib.washington.edu. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
- "Olympic Peninsula Community Museum – Online Exhibits – The Mountaineers". content.lib.washington.edu. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
External links
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Texts from Wikisource
Travel information from Wikivoyage
- A Climber's Glossary
- Military Mountaineering, Army Field Manual FM 3–97.61 (Aug 2002) − Federation of American Scientists (PDF)
- International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation (UIAA) – official organisation of mountaineering and climbing recognised by International Olympic Committee
- Climbing the clouds – virtual exhibit of British Columbia mountaineering