Mountain warfare
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Mountain warfare or alpine warfare is
Mountain ranges are of strategic importance since they often act as a
History
Second Punic War
In 218 BC (DXXXVI AUC), the Carthaginian army commander Hannibal marched troops, cavalry and African elephants across the Alps in an effort to conquer Rome by approaching it from north of the Italian Peninsula. The Roman government was complacent because the Alps were viewed as a secure natural obstacle to would-be invaders. In December 218 BC, the Carthaginian forces defeated Roman troops, in the north, with the use of elephants. Many elephants did not survive the cold weather and disease typical of the European climate. Hannibal's army fought Roman troops in Italy for 15 years but failed to conquer Rome. Carthage was ultimately defeated by Roman general Scipio Africanus at Zama in North Africa in 202 BC (DLII AUC).[2]
Early history
The term mountain warfare is said to have come about in the
Another example of mountain warfare was the Crossing of the Andes, which was carried out by the Argentinean Army of the Andes (Spanish: Ejército de los Andes), commanded by General José de San Martín in 1817. One of the divisions climbed mountains surpassing 5000 m in height.[4]
The
The first British invasion of Afghanistan ended in disaster in 1842, when 16,000 British soldiers and camp followers were massacred as they retreated through the Hindu Kush back to India.[5]
World War I
Mountain warfare came to the fore once again during
World War II
This section is in prose. is available. (September 2019) |
Examples of mountain warfare used during World War II include the Battles of Narvik, Battle of the Caucasus, Kokoda Track campaign, Battle of Attu, Operation Rentier, Operation Gauntlet, Operation Encore, and the British defence at the Battle of Hong Kong.
This section needs expansion with: details on these operations; this is presently just a list that does not delve into mountain warfare during World War II. You can help by adding to it. (March 2020) |
One ambush tactic used against the Germans during the Battles of Narvik utilised hairpin bends. Defenders would position themselves above them and open fire when attackers reached a certain point below, parallel to themselves. This would force the attackers to: retreat; to continue under fire; or to attempt to climb the mountain another way. The tactic could be planned in advance, or employed by a retreating force.[8]
Another tactic utilised was the 'ascending platoon attack'. Attackers would scout higher enemy positions from the ground, aided by bad weather or poor visibility. A Light Machine Gun (LMG) team would open fire towards the high enemy position from a distance, offering cover for the remaining soldiers to gradually advance.[8]
Kashmir conflicts
Since the
The first hostilities between the two nations, during the
The subsequent
Falklands War
Most of the
War in Afghanistan
Throughout history but especially since 1979, many mountain warfare operations have taken place throughout
Kunar and eastern Nuristan are strategic terrain since the area constitutes a major infiltration route into Afghanistan, and insurgents can enter the provinces from any number of places along the border with
In counterinsurgency, seizing and holding territory are less important than avoiding civilian casualties. The primary goals of counterinsurgency are to secure the backing of the populace and thereby to legitimize the government, rather than to focus on militarily defeating the insurgents. Counterinsurgency doctrine has proved difficult to implement in Kunar and Nuristan. In the sparsely-populated mountain regions of eastern Afghanistan, strategists have argued for holding the high ground, a tenet of classical mountain warfare. The argument suggests that if the counterinsurgent does not deny the enemy the high ground, the insurgents can attack at will. In Kunar and Nuristan, US forces continued to pursue a hybrid style of counterinsurgency warfare, with its focus on winning hearts and minds, and mountain warfare, with the US forces seizing and holding the high ground.
Training
The expense of training mountain troops precludes them from being on the order of battle of most armies except those that reasonably expect to fight in such terrain. Mountain warfare training is arduous and in many countries the exclusive preserve of elite units such as special forces or commandos, which as part of their remit should have the ability to fight in difficult terrain such as the Royal Marines. Regular units may also occasionally undertake training of this nature.
See also
References
- ^ "Research report" (PDF). www.rand.org. Retrieved 2020-01-26.
- ^ Ball, Philip (April 3, 2016). "The truth about Hannibal's route across the Alps" – via www.theguardian.com.
- ^ "PBS - Napoleon: Napoleon at War". www.pbs.org.
- ^ "Data" (PDF). www.loc.gov. Retrieved 2020-01-26.
- ^ Stewart, Terry. "Britain's Retreat from Kabul 1842". Historic UK.
- ^ Chow, Brian Mockenhaupt, Stefen. "The Most Treacherous Battle of World War I Took Place in the Italian Mountains". Smithsonian Magazine.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Siachen Glacier: Mountain Warfare". www.siachenglacier.com.
- ^ ISBN 9781849087131.
- ^ a b "The Kashmir conflict: How did it start?". Culture. March 2, 2019. Archived from the original on March 5, 2019.
- ^ "Himalayan Peaks". www.its.caltech.edu.
- ^ "Indo-Pakistani Conflict of 1947-48". www.globalsecurity.org.
- ^ Abbas, Zaffar (July 30, 2016). "When Pakistan and India went to war over Kashmir in 1999". Herald Magazine.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-04-13. Retrieved 2020-01-07.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "Sink the Belgrano", Mike Rossiter, 2007, Transworld, London, pp 189–233
- ^ "On the ground in Afghanistan" (PDF). www.marines.mil. 2012. Retrieved 2021-03-20.
- S2CID 144725353.
Sources
- Frederick Engels, (January 27, 1857) "Mountain Warfare in the Past and Present" New York Daily Tribune MECW Volume 15, p 164
Further reading
- Govan, Thomas P. (1946-09-01). Training for mountain and winter warfare. AGF Study, no. 23. [Washington, D.C.]: Historical Section, Army Ground Forces. Archived from the original on May 27, 2012. Retrieved 2011-01-28.
- Malik, Muhammad Asim (2004-09-10). "Mountain warfare: the need for specialized training" (PDF). Military Review. 84 (5): 94–102. ]
- Pierce, Scott W. (2008-05-22). Mountain and cold weather warfighting: critical capability for the 21st century. SAMS Monograph. Fort Leavenworth, Kans.: School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command and General Staff College. Archived from the original on May 27, 2012. Retrieved 2011-01-28.
External links
- Official page of documentary film GLOBAL WARNING on the Mountain War 1915–1918 Global Warning
- Mountain War in World War I The war in the Italian Dolomites (Italian)
- Historic films showing Mountain Warfare in World War I at europeanfilmgateway.eu
- Mountain Combat World War II Militaria: Combat Lessons
- High Altitude Warfare School of the Indian Army [1]
- Official Italian Army website page on Alpine Troops Command [2]
- Official page of 11th Mountain Infantry Battalion (Brazil)[3]