President (government title)
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President is a common title for the head of state in most republics. The president of a state is, generally speaking, the head of the government and the fundamental leader of the country or the ceremonial head of state.
The functions exercised by a president vary according to the form of government. In parliamentary republics, they are usually, but not always, limited to those of the head of state and are thus largely ceremonial. In presidential, selected parliamentary (e.g. Botswana and South Africa),[1][2] and semi-presidential republics, the role of the president is more prominent, encompassing also (in most cases) the functions of the head of government.[3] A leader of a one-party state may also hold the position of president for ceremonial purposes or to maintain an official state position.[4]
The titles "Mr. President"
History
The title president is derived from the
The most common modern usage is as the title of a head of state in a republic. The first usage of the word president to denote the highest official in a government was during the Commonwealth of England.
Commonwealth
After the abolition of the monarchy the English
The
France
In pre-revolutionary
By the 18th century, the president of a
In
United States
The modern usage of the term president to designate a single person who is the
A common style of address for presidents, "Mr/Mrs. President", is borrowed from British Parliamentary tradition, in which the presiding Speaker of the
The 1787
Others favored the variant of Electoral Highness or the lesser Excellency, the latter of which was vociferously opposed by Adams, who contended that it was far beneath the presidential dignity, as the executives of the states, some of which were also titled "President" (e.g. the president of Pennsylvania), at that time often enjoyed the style of Excellency; Adams said the president "would be leveled with colonial governors or with functionaries from German princedoms" if he were to use the style of Excellency. Adams and Richard Henry Lee both feared that cabals of powerful senators would unduly influence a weak executive, and saw an exalted title as a way of strengthening the presidency.[11] On further consideration, Adams deemed even Highness insufficient and instead proposed that the executive, both the president and the vice president (i.e., himself), be styled Majesty to prevent the "great danger" of an executive with insufficient dignity.[10] Adams' efforts were met with widespread derision and perplexion; Thomas Jefferson called them "the most superlatively ridiculous thing I ever heard of", while Benjamin Franklin considered it "absolutely mad".[10]
Washington consented to the demands of James Madison and the United States House of Representatives that the title be altered to "Mr. President".[12][13][14][15] Nonetheless, later "The Honorable" became the standard title of the President in formal address, and "His/Her Excellency" became the title of the President when addressed formally internationally.
Historically, the title was reserved for the incumbent president only, and was not to be used for former presidents, holding that it was not proper to use the title as a courtesy title when addressing a former president.[16][17][18][19][20] According to the official website of the United States of America, the correct way to address a letter is to use "The Honorable John Doe" and the correct salutation is "Mr. Doe".[21]
Once the United States adopted the title of "president" for its republican head of state, many other nations followed suit.
Other countries
Description
In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the powers of presidencies have varied from country to country. The spectrum of power has included presidents-for-life and hereditary presidencies to ceremonial heads of state.
Presidents in the countries with a democratic or representative form of government are usually elected for a specified period of time and in some cases may be re-elected by the same process by which they are appointed, i.e. in many nations, periodic popular elections. The powers vested in such presidents vary considerably. Some presidencies, such as that of Ireland, are largely ceremonial, whereas other systems vest the president with substantive powers such as the appointment and dismissal of prime ministers or cabinets, the power to declare war, and powers of veto on legislation. In many nations the president is also the commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces, though once again this can range from a ceremonial role to one with considerable authority.
Presidential systems
In almost all states with a
Presidents in this system are either directly elected by popular vote or indirectly elected by an electoral college or some other democratically elected body.
In the
In Mexico, the president is directly elected for a six-year term by popular vote. The candidate who wins the most votes is elected president even without an absolute majority. The president is allowed to serve only one term.
In
Many South American, Central American, African and some Asian nations follow the presidential model.
Semi-presidential systems
A second system is the
Parliamentary republics
The
A variation of the parliamentary republic is a system with an executive president in which the president is the head of state and the government but unlike a presidential system, is elected by and accountable to a parliament, and referred to as president. Countries using this system include Botswana, Nauru and South Africa.
Dictatorships
In
.Collective presidency
Only a tiny minority of modern republics do not have a single head of state. Some examples of this are:
- Federal Assembly (the Swiss parliament) for a year (constitutional convention mandates that the post rotates every New Year's Day).
- The Captains Regent of San Marino elected by the Grand and General Council.
- In the former Soviet Communist Party. After 1938, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet executed powers of a collective head of state, and its chairman was often called "president" in the West, though a singular head of state named "president" was later established in 1990.
- Yugoslavia after the death of Josip Broz Tito, where a presidency consisting of members from each federal unit ruled the country until its breakup.
- Ukraine, in 1918–1920 there existed Directorate composed of seven leaders of parliamentary factions and served as a collective head of state.
- The three-member Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina contains a member from each of the country's largest ethnic groups and serves as the collective head of state of Bosnia and Herzegovina
- National Council of Government in Uruguay from 1952 until 1967
- Junta of National Reconstruction in Nicaragua from 1979 until 1985
One-party states
The president of China is the head of state of the People's Republic of China. Under the country's constitution, the presidency is a largely ceremonial office with limited power. However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, the top leader in the single-party system.
In China between 1982 and 2018, the constitution stipulated that the president could not serve more than two consecutive terms. During the
Presidential symbols
As the country's head of state, in most countries the president is entitled to certain perquisites, and may have a prestigious residence, often a lavish mansion or palace, sometimes more than one (e.g. summer and winter residences, or a country retreat) Customary symbols of office may include an official uniform, decorations, a presidential seal, coat of arms, flag and other visible accessories, as well as military honours such as
Presidential chronologies
United Nations member countries in columns, other entities at the beginning:
- European Commission
- List of presidents of European Union institutions
- List of presidents of the Soviet Union (Leaders)
Titles for non-heads of state
As head of government
Some countries with parliamentary systems use a term meaning/translating as "president" (in some languages indistinguishable from chairman) for the head of parliamentary government, often as President of the Government, President of the Council of Ministers or President of the Executive Council.
However, such an official is explicitly not the president of the country. These officials are called "president" using an older sense of the word, to denote the fact that the official heads the cabinet. A separate head of state generally exists in their country who instead serves as the president or monarch of the country.
Thus, such officials are really premiers, and to avoid confusion are often described simply as 'prime minister' when being mentioned internationally.
There are several examples for this kind of presidency:
- The king.
- The official title of the Italian Prime Minister is President of the Council of Ministers (Italian Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri)
- Under the French president of the Republica largely symbolic figurehead.
- From 1963 until 1992, the head of government of the 1963 Constitution abolished the office of Prime Minister of Yugoslaviaand transferred its functions to the president of the Federal Executive Council. Despite this, foreign media sources continued to refer to individuals holding the office of President of the Federal Executive Council as being the "Prime Minister of Yugoslavia".
- The King of Ireland, as well as a resident Governor-Generalcarrying out many head of state functions.
- Under the Second Republics, the head of government was the president of the Ministry (Portuguese Presidente do Ministério) and then the president of the Council of Ministers, with the president of the Republicas the head of State.
- The official title of the Croatian prime minister is President of the Government of the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Predsjednik Vlade Republike Hrvatske).
- The official title of the Polish prime minister is President of the Council of Ministers (Polish Prezes Rady Ministrów).
- In British constitutional practice, the chairman of an Executive Council, acting in such a capacity, is known as a president of the Executive Council. Usually this person is the Governorand it always stays like that.
- Between 1918 and 1934, state elders(1920–1934) often translated as "presidents") were elected by the parliament.
- The head of government of Iran is styled as the "President". The Iranian head of state is the Supreme Leader, to whom the president is subordinate.
Other executive positions
Sub-national
President can also be the title of the chief executive at a lower administrative level, such as the
Poland
In Poland, the president of the city (Polish: Prezydent miasta) is the executive authority of the municipality elected in direct elections, the equivalent of the mayor. The Office of the President (Mayor) is also found in Germany and Switzerland.
Russia
Governors of
Over the course of the 2010s the presidents of Russian republics would progressively change their title to that of
United Kingdom
The
Historically the president of the Board of Trade was a cabinet member.
Dependencies
In Alderney, the elected head of government is called the president of the States of Alderney.
In the Isle of Man, there is a president of Tynwald.
Spain
In
Deputies
Below a president, there can be a number of or "vice presidents" (or occasionally "deputy presidents") and sometimes several "assistant presidents" or "assistant vice presidents", depending on the organisation and its size. These posts do not hold the same power but more of a subordinate position to the president. However, power can be transferred in special circumstances to the deputy or vice president. Normally vice presidents hold some power and special responsibilities below that of the president. The difference between vice/deputy presidents and assistant/associate vice presidents is the former are legally allowed to run an organisation, exercising the same powers (as well as being second in command) whereas the latter are not.
Legislatures
In some countries the speaker of their unicameral legislatures, or of one or both houses of bicameral legislatures, the speakers have the title of president of "the body", as in the case of
Judiciary
The term 'President' is usually used in
France
In French legal terminology, the president of a court consisting of multiple judges is the foremost judge; he chairs the meeting of the court and directs the debates (and is thus addressed as "Mrs President", "Madame la Présidente", "Mr President", or Monsieur le Président. In general, a court comprises several chambers, each with its own president; thus the most senior of these is called the "first president" (as in: "the First President of the Court of Cassation is the most senior judge in France"). Similarly in English legal practice the most senior judge in each division uses this title (e.g. President of the Family Division, President of the Court of Appeal).
Spain
In the
The Constitutional Court is not part of the Judiciary, but the leader of it is called President of the Constitutional Court.
United Kingdom
In the recently established Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, the most senior judge is called the president of the Supreme Court. The lady/lord president of the Court of Session is head of the judiciary in Scotland, and presiding judge (and Senator) of the College of Justice and Court of Session, as well as being Lady/Lord Justice General of Scotland and head of the High Court of Justiciary, the offices having been combined in 1784.
Spousal or female titles
Titles for a president's spouse, if female, have ranged from "Marquise" to "Lady" to simply "Mrs." (or "Ms.").[14] If male the title of the president's spouse may be "Marquis", "Lord", or merely "Mr.".
United States
President George Washington's wife,
In the media
On 8 November 2016, the night of the 2016 presidential election in the United States, images of leaked pre-printed copies of Newsweek magazine showed the magazine celebrating the win of the Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton, with the cover titled "Madam President". It is common for Newsweek to prepare for the eventuality of either candidate winning, though it was unusual that it was both published and distributed; the cover was pulled from newsstands after it became clear that Donald Trump had secured a majority of electoral votes, winning the election.[28]
See also
- Eternal President of the Republic
- Presidential system
- Presidents Day
- Requirements for becoming a president
- Vice president
- First Lady
Head of state
- Governor-General
- Head of state
- List of state leaders
- Monarch
- Supreme Leader
Other head of government
- Minister-President(a head of government, not of state)
- Prime minister
References
- ^ "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 5: The President and National Executive". www.gov.za. 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
- ^ Allard, P (2016). "Government social advertising and ethno-politics in a small, ethnically diverse nation". ResearchGate. p. 67. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
- ISBN 978-0-199548460. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
- ^ "The President, Our Government". The White House. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-8118-4316-4.
- ^ Safire, William (24 November 1991). "On Language; Manhandling the Handlers". The New York Times.
- ^ Wood, Lewis (13 May 1945). "Mr. President Is correct". The New York Times.
- ^ Bartoloni-Tuazon, Kathleen (2014). For Fear of an Elective King. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 89.
- ^ a b Bartoloni-Tuazon, Kathleen (2014). For Fear of an Elective King. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 86.
- ^ JSTOR 363331.
- ^ Bartoloni-Tuazon, Kathleen (2014). For Fear of an Elective King. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 57.
- ISBN 1-4069-2845-3.
- ISBN 978-0-393-04861-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-59420-093-9.
- ISBN 978-0-19-516676-7.
- ^ Martin, Judith (21 January 2009). "Miss Manners by Judith Martin". The Washington Post. Retrieved 18 May 2019.
- ^ "Presidents, Vice Presidents, and First Ladies of the United States | USAGov". www.usa.gov. Retrieved 24 August 2020.
- ^ Martin, Judith (21 October 1992). "Addressing a Former President". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 10 June 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
- ^ Hickey, Robert. "Is a Former President Addressed as President (name)?". Honor & Respect – The Official Guide to Names, Titles, and Forms of Address. Protocol School of Washington. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
- ^ Keller, Kerrie (5 January 2013). "Addressing a Former President of the United States". The Emily Post Institute. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
When addressing a former President of the United States in a formal setting, the correct form is "Mr. LastName". ("President LastName" or "Mr. President" are terms reserved for the current head of state.)
- ^ "Presidents, Vice Presidents, and First Ladies of the United States".
- ^ Emma J. Lapsansky-Werner and Margaret Hope Bacon, eds., Back to Africa: Benjamin Coates and the Colonization Movement in America: 1848–1880. State College PA: Pennsylvania State Press, 2010. 57–59.
ISBN 9780271045719books.google.com/books?id=9X0rc6E9EGkC&pg=PA57
- ^ Xu Guoqui, China and the Great War: China's Pursuit of a New National Identity and Internationalization. Cambridge University Press, 2005. 319.
ISBN 9780521842129books.google.com/books?id=erOGMb8c4XEC&pg=PA319
- ^ But presidential moral suasion is increasingly confirming that the "neutral powers", in this country, often find in the head of state the best defender from executive interference: Buonomo, Giampiero (2014). "Autorità indipendenti e sistema costituzionale". L'Ago e Il Filo. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2016.
- ^ McCullough, J. J. "Presidential Sashes". Archived from the original on 23 January 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ISBN 978-0-8050-1751-9.
- Executive Office of the President. 26 February 2017. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
Mrs. Trump added that, "the scents of jasmine and roses fill the air as we give thanks for this great Nation and the glory of renewal."
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 17 November 2016.