Mugger crocodile

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Mugger crocodile
Temporal range:
Ma[1]
↓
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[2]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Clade: Archosauromorpha
Clade: Archosauriformes
Order: Crocodilia
Family: Crocodylidae
Genus: Crocodylus
Species:
C. palustris
Binomial name
Crocodylus palustris
(
Lesson, 1831)[2]
Distribution of mugger crocodile
Synonyms[3]
  • Crocodilus palustris Lesson, 1831
  • Crocodilus vulgarts var. indicus Gray, 1831
  • Crocodilus bombifrons Gray, 1844
  • Crocodilus trigonops Gray, 1844
  • Crocodylus palustris subsp. kimbula Deraniyagala, 1936

The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) is a medium-sized broad-

incubation. Both parents protect the young for up to one year. They feed on insects, and adults prey on fish, reptiles, birds and mammals
.

The mugger crocodile evolved at least 4.19 million years ago and has been a symbol for the fructifying and destructive powers of the rivers since the Vedic period. It was first scientifically described in 1831 and is protected by law in Iran, India and Sri Lanka. Since 1982, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Outside protected areas, it is threatened by conversion of natural habitats, gets entangled in fishing nets and is killed in human–wildlife conflict situations and in traffic accidents.

Taxonomy and evolution

Crocodilus palustris was the

naturalists and curators of natural history museums described zoological specimens
and proposed different names, including:

Evolution

common ancestor of the genus about 12.45 to 7.17 million years ago. The sister group comprising saltwater crocodile (C. porosus), Siamese crocodile (C. siamensis) and mugger crocodile diverged about 11.65 to 6.52 million years ago. The latter diverged from this group about 8.91 to 4.19 million years ago.[6]
A
radiated towards Southeast Asia and the Americas, diverging from its closest recent relative, the extinct Voay of Madagascar, around 25 million years ago near the Oligocene/Miocene boundary.[7]
Within Crocodylus, the mugger crocodile's closest
living relatives are the Siamese crocodile and the saltwater crocodile.[8][9][10][7]

late Pliocene sediments in the Sivalik Hills is thought to be an ancestor of the mugger crocodile.[14] Fossil remains of C. palaeindicus were also excavated in the vicinity of Bagan in central Myanmar.[15]

Phylogenetic relationships of the mugger crocodile based on
analysis of 12 concatenated mitochondrial DNA sequences[6][16]
Crocodylus 

American crocodile (C. acutus)

Orinoco crocodile (C. intermedius)

Cuban crocodile (C. rhombifer)

Morelet's crocodile (C. moreletii)

Nile crocodile (C. niloticus)

Saltwater crocodile (C. porosus)

Mugger crocodile

Siamese crocodile (C. siamensis)

New Guinea crocodile (C. novaeguineae)

Philippine crocodile (C. mindorensis)

Freshwater crocodile (C. johnstoni)

based on
Illumina sequencing of mitogenomes[17]
Crocodylus 

Orinoco crocodile

American crocodile

Cuban crocodile

Morelet's crocodile

Nile crocodile

Mugger crocodile

Siamese crocodile

Saltwater crocodile

New Guinea crocodile

Philippine crocodile

Freshwater crocodile

Below

Crocodylidae.[10] This cladogram was revised in a paleogenomics study.[7]

Crocodylidae
Osteolaeminae

Brochuchus†

Rimasuchus†

Osborn’s dwarf crocodile
Osteolaemus osborni

Dwarf crocodile Osteolaemus tetraspis

Crocodylinae

Voay†

Crocodylus
Asia+Australia

Freshwater crocodile

New Guinea crocodile

Philippine crocodile

Saltwater crocodile

Siamese crocodile

Mugger crocodile

Africa+New World

West African crocodile C. suchus

Nile crocodile

New World

Morelet's crocodile

Cuban crocodile

Orinoco crocodile

American crocodile

(crown group)

Characteristics

Illustration of mugger crocodile skull
Illustration of mugger dentition

Mugger crocodile hatchlings are pale olive with black spots. Adults are dark olive to grey or brown. The head is rough without any ridges and has large

palate is nearly straight or curved forwards, and the nasal bones separate the premaxilla above.[18]

The mugger crocodile is considered a medium-sized crocodilian, but has the broadest

smelling senses are acute. Adult female muggers are 2 to 2.5 m (6 ft 7 in to 8 ft 2 in) on average; males usually measure 3 to 3.5 m (9 ft 10 in to 11 ft 6 in), but rarely reach a length of 5 m (16 ft 5 in). The two largest known muggers measured 5.63 m (18 ft 6 in) and were killed in Sri Lanka.[20]
One individual weighing 207 kg (456 lb) had a
bite force of 7,295 N (1,640 lbf).[21] Large males may reach a weight of 450 kg (1,000 lb).[22]

The largest

British Museum of Natural History measures 3.7 m (12 ft 2 in).[18] One male mugger caught in Pakistan of about 3 m (9 ft 10 in) weighed 195 kg (430 lb).[23]

Distribution and habitat

Mugger crocodiles in Chabahar County, Iran
A mugger basking in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A mugger on the banks of Vashishti River, Maharashtra
Mugger in Malataj, Gujarat

The mugger crocodile occurs in southern Iran, Pakistan, Nepal, India and Sri Lanka up to an elevation of 420 m (1,380 ft).[2] It inhabits freshwater lakes, rivers and marshes, and prefers slow-moving, shallow water bodies. It also thrives in artificial reservoirs and irrigation canals.[19]

In Iran, the mugger occurs along rivers in

tropical cyclones in 2007 and 2010, much of the habitat of the mugger crocodiles has been restored as formerly dry lakes and hamuns were flooded again.[24]

In Pakistan, a small population lives in 21 ponds around

Haleji lake.[26][27][28]

In Nepal's

Bardia National Parks, Ghodaghodi Tal, Chitwan National Park and Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve.[29][30][31][32]

In India, it occurs in:

In Sri Lanka, it occurs in Wilpattu, Yala and Bundala National Parks.[19][48] Between 1991 and 1996, it was recorded in another 102 localities.[49]

In

locally extinct in the country.[51]
In Bhutan, it became extinct in the late 1960s, but a few captive-bred individuals were released in the Manas River in the late 1990s.[34] It is considered locally extinct in Myanmar.[2]

Behaviour and ecology

Mugger walking, Sri Lanka
Muggers basking on sand banks

The mugger crocodile is a powerful swimmer that uses its tail and hind feet to move forward, change direction and submerge. It belly-walks, with its belly touching ground, at the bottom of waterbodies and on land. During the hot dry season, it walks over land at night to find suitable wetlands and spends most of the day submerged in water. During the cold season it basks on riverbanks, individuals are tolerant of others during this period.

Territorial behaviour increases during the mating season.[20]

Like all crocodilians, the mugger crocodile is a

thermoconformer and has an optimal body temperature of 30 to 35 °C (86 to 95 °F) and risks dying of freezing or hyperthermia when exposed to temperatures below 5 °C (41 °F) or above 38 °C (100 °F), respectively. It digs burrows to retreat from extreme temperatures and other harsh climatic conditions.[52] Burrows are between 0.6 and 6 m (2.0 and 19.7 ft) deep, with entrances above the water level and a chamber at the end that is big enough to allow the mugger to turn around.[20] Temperatures inside remains constant at 19.2 to 29 °C (66.6 to 84.2 °F), depending on region.[48]

Hunting and diet

The mugger crocodile preys on fish, snakes, turtles, birds and mammals including monkeys, squirrels, rodents, otters and dogs. It also scavenges on dead animals. During dry seasons, muggers walk many kilometers over land in search of water and prey.[53] Hatchlings feed mainly on insects such as beetles, but also on crabs and shrimp and on vertebrates later on.[54][55] It seizes and drags potential prey approaching watersides into the water, when the opportunity arises. Adult muggers were observed feeding on a flapshell turtle and a tortoise.[56][57] Subadult and adult muggers favour fish, but also prey on small to medium-sized ungulates up to the size of chital (Axis axis).[58] In Bardia National Park, a mugger was observed caching a chital kill beneath the roots of a tree and returning to its basking site. A part of the deer was still wedged among the roots on the next day.[30] Muggers have also been observed while preying and feeding on a python.[55] At the Chambal River, muggers have attacked water buffaloes, cattle and goats.[59] In Yala National Park, a mugger was observed killing a large Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), of which it devoured pieces over several hours.[60]

Tool use

Mugger crocodiles have been documented using lures to hunt birds.

use tools. By balancing sticks and branches on their heads, they lure birds that are looking for nesting material. This strategy is particularly effective during the nesting season.[62]

Reproduction

Female muggers obtain

reproduction cycle starts earliest in November at the onset of the cold season with courtship and mating. Between February and June, females dig 35–56 cm (14–22 in) deep holes for nesting between 1 and 2,000 m (3 ft 3 in and 6,561 ft 8 in) away from the waterside. They lay up to two clutches with 8 –46 eggs each. Eggs weigh 128 g (4.5 oz) on average. Laying of one clutch usually takes less than half an hour. Thereafter, females scrape sand over the nest to close it. Males have been observed to assist females in digging and protecting nest sites. Hatching season is two months later, between April and June in south India, and in Sri Lanka between August and September. Then females excavate the young, pick them up in their snouts and take them to the water. Both females and males protect the young for up to one year.[20][53]

Healthy hatchlings develop at a temperature range of 28–33 °C (82–91 °F). Sex ratio of hatched eggs depends on incubation temperature and exposure of nests to sunshine. Only females develop at constant temperatures of 28–31 °C (82–88 °F), and only males at 32.5 °C (90.5 °F). Percentage of females in a clutch decreases at constant temperatures between 32.6 and 33 °C (90.7 and 91.4 °F), and of males between 31 and 32.4 °C (87.8 and 90.3 °F). Temperature in natural nests is not constant but varies between nights and days. Foremost females hatch in natural early nests when initial temperature inside nests ranges between 26.4 and 28.9 °C (79.5 and 84.0 °F). The percentage of male hatchlings increases in late nests located in sunny sites.[63] Hatchlings are 26–31 cm (10–12 in) long and weigh 75 g (2.6 oz) on average when one month old. They grow about 4.25 cm (1.67 in) per month and reach a body length of 90–170 cm (35–67 in) when two years old.[20]

Sympatric predators

Mugger crocodile attacking a tiger, 1901[64]
A mugger crocodile and a tiger in Ranthambore National Park
Mugger crocodile and gharial

The distribution of the mugger crocodile overlaps with that of the saltwater crocodile in a few coastal areas, but it barely enters

Narayani Rivers, in the eastern Mahanadi, and in tributaries of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers.[32][69][37]

The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) occasionally fights mugger crocodiles off prey and rarely preys on adult mugger crocodiles in Ranthambore National Park.[70] The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo leo) sometimes preys on crocodiles on the banks of the Kamleshwar Dam in Gir National Park during dry, hot months.[71]

Threats

The mugger crocodile is threatened by habitat destruction because of conversion of natural habitats for agricultural and industrial use. As humans encroach into its habitat, the incidents of conflict increase. Muggers are entangled in fishing equipment and drown, and are killed in areas where fishermen perceive them as competition.[2] Major wetlands in Pakistan were

agricultural runoffs into rivers.[34]

In Gujarat, two muggers were found killed, one in 2015 with the tail cut off and internal organs missing; the other in 2017, also with the tail cut off. The missing body parts indicate that the crocodiles were sacrificed in

superstitious practices or used as aphrodisiacs.[72]
Between 2005 and 2018, 38 mugger crocodiles were victims of traffic accidents on roads and railway tracks in Gujarat; 29 were found dead, four died during treatment, and five were returned to the wild after medical care.[36] In 2017, a dead mugger was found on a railway track in Rajasthan.[73]

Conservation

The mugger crocodile is listed in

CITES Appendix I, hence international commercial trade is prohibited. It has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 1982. By 2013, less than 8,700 mature individuals were estimated to live in the wild and no population unit to comprise more than 1,000 individuals.[2]

In India, it has been protected since 1972 under Schedule I of the

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, which prohibits catching, killing and transporting a crocodile without a permit; offenders face imprisonment and a fine.[65]
In Sri Lanka, it was listed in Schedule IV of the Fauna & Flora Protection Ordinance in 1946, which allowed for shooting one crocodile with a permit. Today, it is strictly protected, but law enforcement in Sri Lanka is lacking.[74] In Iran, the mugger crocodile is listed as endangered and has been legally protected since 2013; capturing and killing a crocodile is punished with a fine of 100 million Iranian rials.[75]

Since large muggers occasionally take livestock, this leads to conflict with local people living close to mugger habitat. In Maharashtra, local people are compensated for loss of close relatives and livestock.[55][76] Local people in Baluchestan respect the mugger crocodile as a water living creature and do not harm it. If an individual kills livestock, the owner is compensated for the loss. The mugger crocodile is translocated in severe conflict cases.[75]

A total of 1,193 captive bred muggers were released to restock populations in 28 protected areas in India between 1978 and 1992. Production of new offspring was halted by the Indian Government in 1994.[2]

In culture

Indian Museum, Kolkata

The Sanskrit word मकर 'makara' refers to the crocodile and a mythical crocodile-like animal.[77] The Hindi word for crocodile is मगर 'magar'.[78] In English language, both names 'mugger' and 'magar' were used around the turn of the 20th century.[79][80][81] The names 'marsh crocodile' and 'broad-snouted crocodile' have been used since the late 1930s.[82]

The crocodile is acknowledged as the

BC.[85]

The traditional biography of the Indian saint

sacred. In the early 20th century, young married women fed the crocodiles in Khan Jahan Ali's Tank in Jessore in the hope of being blessed with children.[88]

vermillion, oil and coconut fibres.[89] Fatal attacks of mugger crocodiles on humans were documented in Gujarat and Maharasthra, but they rarely consumed the victims who died of drowning.[90]

A fable from the

children’s book Adventures of a Nepali Frog features the character Mugger, the crocodile who lives by the Rapti River in Chitwan National Park.[95]

See also

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External links

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