Mughal Empire

Mughal Empire
1526–1857
The empire at its greatest extent in c. 1700 under Aurangzeb
Status	Empire
Capital	Agra (1526–1530; 1560–1571; 1598–1648) Delhi (1530–1540; 1554–1556; 1639–1857) Lahore (1586–1598)[1] Fatehpur Sikri (1571–1585)
Common languages	Persian (official and court language)[2] Urdu (later given official status)[3] Hindustani (lingua franca) Chagatai (spoken in the initial years) Arabic (for religious ceremonies) Other Indian languages
Religion	State religion: Hanafi ) Din-i Ilahi (1582–1605)
Government	Unitary absolute monarchy under a federal structure Centralized autocracy[4] (1526–1719) Oligarchic constitutional monarchy (1719–1857)
Bahadur Shah II
Vakil-i-Mutlaq
• 1526–1540 (first)	Mir Khalifa
• 1795–1818 (last)	Daulat Rao Sindhia
Grand Vizier
• 1526–1540 (first)	Mir Khalifa
• 1775–1797 (last)	Asaf-ud-Daula
Historical era	Early modern
• First Battle of Panipat	21 April 1526
• Empire interrupted by Sur Empire	1540–1555
• Second Battle of Panipat	5 November 1556
• Mughal–Maratha Wars	1680–1707
• Battle of Delhi followed by Battle of Bhopal	1737
• Nader Shah's invasion of India	10 May 1738–1740
• Battle of Buxar	22 October 1764
• Siege of Delhi	21 September 1857
• Mughal emperor tried and exiled to Burma	1858
Area
1690[6][7]	4,000,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1595	125,000,000[8]
• 1700	158,000,000[9]
Currency	Rupee, Taka, dam[10]: 73–74
Preceded by Succeeded by Delhi Sultanate Sur Empire Maratha Empire Sikh Misl Company rule in India British Raj

The Mughal Empire was an early modern empire in South Asia.^[11] For some two hundred years, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India.^[12]

The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by

Although the Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare,[17]^[18][19] it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices,^[20][21] and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardized rule.^[22] The base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.^[23][24] These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,^[25] were paid in the well-regulated silver currency,^[22] and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.^[26]

The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion.

Another name for the empire was Hindustan which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire.^[38] Mughal administrative records also refer to the empire as "Land of Hindustan" (Persian: بِلادِ هِندوستان, romanized: Bilād-i-Hindustān), "Dominions of Hindustan" (Persian: وِلايَتِ هِندوستان, romanized: Wilāyat-i-Hindustān),^[39] or "Sultanate of Hindiyyah" (Arabic: سلطنة الهندية, Sultanate Al Hindiyyah) as observed in the epithet of emperor Aurangzeb.^[40] The Mughals styled themselves as the "Badshah of Hindustan". In the west, the term "Mughal" was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole.^[41]

History

Main article: Mughal dynasty

Babur and Humayun (1526–1556)

Main articles: Babur and Humayun

The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the

Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat

in 1526. Before the battle, Babur sought divine favour by abjuring liquor, breaking the wine vessels and pouring the wine down a well. However, by this time Lodi's empire was already crumbling, and it was actually the Rajput Confederacy which was the strongest power of Northern India under the capable rule of Rana Sanga of Mewar. He defeated Babur in the Battle of Bayana.^[45] However, in the decisive Battle of Khanwa which was fought near Agra, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the Rajput army of Sanga. This battle was one of the most decisive and historic battles in Indian history, as it sealed the fate of Northern India for the next two centuries.

After the battle, the centre of Mughal power became Agra instead of Kabul. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India.^[46] The instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun (reigned 1530–1556), who was forced into exile in Persia by rebels. The Sur Empire (1540–1555), founded by Sher Shah Suri (reigned 1540–1545), briefly interrupted Mughal rule.^[42] Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire.^{[citation needed]} Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India, but he died in an accident the next year.^[42]

Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556–1707)

Main articles: Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb

Din-i-Ilahi, with strong characteristics of a ruler cult.^[42] He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge.^[42]

Sikh guru Arjan, whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal empire and the Sikh community.^[55][56][57]

Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) was born to Jahangir and his wife Jagat Gosain, a Rajput princess.^[50] His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture.^[58] During the reign of Shah Jahan, the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the Taj Mahal.The cost of maintaining the court, however, began to exceed the revenue coming in.^[42] His reign was called as "The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture". Shah Jahan extended the Mughal empire to the Deccan by ending the Nizam Shahi dynasty, and forced the Adil Shahis and Qutb Shahis to pay tribute.^[59]

Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal

Peshawar by 1758.^[66]

Aurangzeb is considered India's most controversial king,

Marathas.^[68]

Decline (1707–1857)

Further information: Bahadur Shah Zafar

Sayyid Brothers

Aurangzeb's son,

Sayyid Brothers, became the de facto sovereigns of the empire.^[69][70]

During the reign of

Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their own affairs, and broke away to form independent kingdoms.^{[citation needed]} But, according to Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, the Mughal Emperor continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgments of the emperor as the sovereign of India.^[74]

Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire, involved themselves and the state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of territory during the

Bengal War

.

The Mughal Emperor

Empress of India

.

Causes of decline

Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. In fiscal terms, the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities, and made their own deals with local men of influence. The imperial army, bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas, lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region.^[78]

Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-led rejuvenation.^[79]

Modern views on the decline

Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline, with little consensus on which factor was dominant. The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in high places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge. A Marxist school (led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim University) emphasises excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped away the will and the means to support the regime.^[80] Karen Leonard has focused on the failure of the regime to work with Hindu bankers, whose financial support was increasingly needed; the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British.^[81] In a religious interpretation, some scholars argue that the Hindu powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty.^[82] Finally, other scholars argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of independence, thus weakening the imperial court.^[83]

British rule later causing further deindustrialization.^[84] According to Williamson, the decline of the Mughal Empire led to a decline in agricultural productivity, which drove up food prices, then nominal wages, and then textile prices, which led to India losing a share of the world textile market to Britain even before it had superior factory technology.^[85] Indian textiles, however, still maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles up until the 19th century.^[86]

Administration and state

Main article: Government of the Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire had a highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar.

The empire was divided into Subah (provinces), each of which were headed by a provincial governor called a subadar. The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each suba had its own bakhshi, sadr as-sudr, and finance minister that reported directly to the central government rather than the subahdar. Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars, which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas. Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector.^[76][87] Parganas were the basic administrative unit of the Mughal empire.^[89]

Mughal administrative divisions were not static. Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control, and to extend cultivation. For example, a sarkar could turn into a subah, and parganas were often transferred between sarkars. The hierarchy of division was ambiguous sometimes, as a territory could fall under multiple overlapping jurisdictions. Administrative divisions were also vague in their geography – the Mughal state did not have enough resources or authority to undertake detailed land surveys, and hence the geographical limits of these divisions were not formalised and maps not created. The Mughals instead recorded detailed statistics about each division, in order to assess the territory's capacity for revenue, on the basis of simpler land surveys.^[89]

Capitals

The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established over the course of their rule. These were the cities of

The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance was carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps.[93]

After Aurangzeb, the Mughal capital definitively became the walled city of

The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved over the course of the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the qadi (judge), mufti (jurisconsult), and muhtasib (censor and market supervisor) were well-established in the Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology, and the fact that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority.^[95]

Legal ideology

The Mughal Empire followed the Sunni

The Mughal Empire also drew on Persianate notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs.[95]

Courts of law

Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal empire. One such court was that of the qadi. The Mughal qadi was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The qadi also had additional importance with regards to documents, as the seal of the qadi was required to validate deeds and tax records. Qadis did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the pargana (district) qadi. More prestigious positions were those of the qadi al-quddat (judge of judges) who accompanied the mobile imperial camp, and the qadi-yi lashkar (judge of the army).^[95] Qadis were usually appointed by the emperor or the sadr-us-sudr (chief of charities).^[95][97] The jurisdiction of the qadi was availed by Muslims and non-Muslims alike.^[98]

The

Economy in the Indian Subcontinent during mughal era performed just as it did in ancient times, though now it would face the stress of extensive regional tensions.^[100] The Mughal economy was large and prosperous.^[101][102] India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750.^[103][102] India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization, like that of 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.^[104]

The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system, creating a uniform currency, and the unification of the country.^{[10]: 185–204} The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct.^[101]

The main base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.^[23][24] These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,^[25] were paid in the well-regulated silver currency,^[22] and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.^[26]

Coinage

The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee (rupiya, or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule.^[105] The currency was initially 48 dams to a single rupee in the beginning of Akbar's reign, before it later became 38 dams to a rupee in the 1580s, with the dam's value rising further in the 17th century as a result of new industrial uses for copper, such as in bronze cannons and brass utensils. The dam was initially the most common coin in Akbar's time, before being replaced by the rupee as the most common coin in succeeding reigns.^[10] The dam's value was later worth 30 to a rupee towards the end of Jahangir's reign, and then 16 to a rupee by the 1660s.^[106] The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without debasement until the 1720s.^[107]

Despite India having its own stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own, but mostly minted coins from imported bullion, as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India.^[10] Around 80% of Mughal India's imports were bullion, mostly silver,^[108] with major sources of imported bullion including the New World and Japan,^[107] which in turn imported large quantities of textiles and silk from the Bengal Subah province.^[10]

Labour

The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to the Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52%, the secondary sector 18% and the tertiary sector 29%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century

According to Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta, grain wages in India were comparable to England in the 16th and 17th centuries, but diverged in the 18th century when they fell to 20-40% of England's wages.[111]^[112] This, however, is disputed by Parthasarathi and Sivramkrishna. Parthasarathi cites his estimates that grain wages for weaving and spinning in mid-18 century Bengal and South India was comparable to Britain.^[113] Similarly, Sivramkrishna analyzed agricultural surveys conducted in Mysore by Francis Buchanan during 1800–1801, arrived at estimates using a "subsistence basket" that aggregated millet income could be almost five times subsistence level, while corresponding rice income was three times that much.^[114] That could be comparable to advance part of Europe.^[115] Due to the scarcity of data, however, more research is needed before drawing any conclusion.^[116][117]

According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century.^[118] This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food per-capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910.^[119] However, in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for manual labour.^[120] In Mughal India, there was a generally tolerant attitude towards manual labourers, with some religious cults in northern India proudly asserting a high status for manual labour. While slavery also existed, it was limited largely to household servants.^[120]

Agriculture

Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire.^[101] A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco.^[101]

The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform, which began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance.^[121] The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.^[101]

A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt. He replaced the

The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing, particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colours. The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade.^[101] India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century.^[129] Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan.^[130] By the early 18th century, Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East.^[85] The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka.^[131]

Bengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia,^[128] Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,^[10]: 202 and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "Dhaka textiles".^[131] Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.^[84]

The

Once, the Mughal emperor Akbar asked his courtiers, which was the most beautiful flower. Some said rose, from whose petals were distilled the precious

ittar, others, the lotus, glory of every Indian village. But Birbal said, "The cotton boll". There was a scornful laughter and Akbar asked for an explanation. Birbal said, "Your Majesty, from the cotton boll comes the fine fabric prized by merchants across the seas that has made your empire famous throughout the world. The perfume of your fame far exceeds the scent of roses and jasmine. That is why I say the cotton boll is the most beautiful flower.^[135]

Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centred in the Bengal province. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.^[136] He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.^[136]

An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a

The Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757.

Population

India's population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire, with an unprecedented economic and demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60%

The following table gives population estimates for the Mughal Empire, compared to the total population of India, including the regions of modern Pakistan and Bangladesh, and compared to the world population:

Urbanization

According to Irfan Habib Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres.

Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the empire's total population. This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13% of its total population,[145] while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800 and 9% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era.^[149] By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.^[150]

Those estimates were criticised by Tim Dyson, who consider them exaggerations. According to Dyson urbanization of Mughal empire was less than 9%.^[151]

The historian

Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods, and provided homes for a variety of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, artisans, moneylenders, weavers, craftspeople, officials, and religious figures.[101] However, a number of cities were military and political centres, rather than manufacturing or commerce centres.^[155]

Culture

• Centralised imperial rule that consolidated the smaller polities of South Asia.^[157]
• The amalgamation of Persian art and literature with Indian art.^[158]

• The development of Mughlai cuisine, an amalgamation of South Asian, Iranian and Central Asian culinary styles.
• The development of Mughal clothing, jewelry and fashion, utilizing richly decorated fabrics such as muslin, silk, brocade and velvet.
• The Persian and Arabic language mixed with Hindi grammar, thus the development of Urdu.^[159]
• The introduction of sophisticated Iranian-style waterworks and horticulture through
  Mughal gardening.^[160]
• The introduction of
  Turkish baths
  into the Indian subcontinent.
• The evolution and refinement of
  Indian architecture and in turn, the development of later Rajput and Sikh palatial architecture. A famous Mughal landmark is the Taj Mahal
  .
• The development of the
  varzesh-e bastani.^[161][162]
• The construction of
  Maktab schools, where youth were taught the Quran and Islamic law such as the Fatawa 'Alamgiri
  in their indigenous languages.
• The development of Hindustani classical music,^[163] and instruments such as the sitar.^{[164][self-published source?]}

Architecture

The Mughals made a major contribution to the

Aurangabad, Delhi, Dhaka, Fatehpur Sikri, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul, Sheikhupura, and many other cities of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh,^[165] such as:

The Mughal artistic tradition, mainly expressed in painted miniatures, as well as small luxury objects, was eclectic, borrowing from Iranian, Indian, Chinese and Renaissance European stylistic and thematic elements.^[166] Mughal emperors often took in Iranian bookbinders, illustrators, painters and calligraphers from the Safavid court due to the commonalities of their Timurid styles, and due to the Mughal affinity for Iranian art and calligraphy.^[167] Miniatures commissioned by the Mughal emperors initially focused on large projects illustrating books with eventful historical scenes and court life, but later included more single images for albums, with portraits and animal paintings displaying a profound appreciation for the serenity and beauty of the natural world.^[168] For example, Emperor Jahangir commissioned brilliant artists such as Ustad Mansur to realistically portray unusual flora and fauna throughout the empire.

The literary works Akbar and Jahangir ordered to be illustrated ranged from epics like the

Language

According to Qazvini, by the time of

Gunpowder warfare

See also:

mounted archers on both wings. Babur used this formation at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, where the Afghan and Rajput forces loyal to the Delhi Sultanate, though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons, were defeated. The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battle over the course of the empire's history.^[182] In India, guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504) and Diu (1533).^[183]

Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi gun shot. As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun.^[184]

By the 17th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in

Bijapur and Murshidabad.^[185]

Rocketry and explosives

See also: Mysorean rockets and Congreve rocket

In the sixteenth century, Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly against war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.^[186] In 1657, the Mughal Army used rockets during the Siege of Bidar.^[187] Prince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot, and after twenty-seven days of hard fighting Bidar was captured by the Mughals.^[187]

In A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder,

James Riddick Partington described Indian rockets and explosive mines:^[183]

The Indian war rockets ... were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket-body lashed to the rod, and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic. The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahangir.

Later, the

Battle of Pollilur. In turn, the Mysorean rockets were the basis for the Congreve rockets, which Britain deployed in the Napoleonic Wars against France and the War of 1812 against the United States.^[188]

Science

Astronomy

See also: Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world and Indian astronomy

While there appears to have been little concern for

Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques.^[189][190]

During the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Hindu king

Zij-i-Sultani. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.^[189][190]

Chemistry

See also: Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world

Allahabad

and Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal Empire.

In Britain, Sake Dean Mahomed was appointed as

William IV.^[191]

Metallurgy

See also: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent

One of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented in Mughal India is the

metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce hollow metal globes without any seams.^[192]

A 17th century celestial globe was also made by Diya’ ad-din Muhammad in Lahore, 1668 (now in Pakistan).^[193] It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland.

List of Mughal Emperors

Main article: Mughal emperors

Portrait	Titular Name	Birth Name	Birth	Reign	Death
1	Babur بابر	Zahir al-Din Muhammad ظہیر الدین محمد	14 February 1483 Andijan, Uzbekistan	20 April 1526 – 26 December 1530	26 December 1530 (aged 47) Agra, India
2	Humayun ہمایوں	Nasir al-Din Muhammad نصیر الدین محمد	6 March 1508 Kabul, Afghanistan	26 December 1530  – 17 May 1540 22 February 1555 – 27 January 1556 (10 years 3 months 25 days)	27 January 1556 (aged 47) Delhi, India
3	Akbar the Great اکبر	Jalal al-Din Muhammad جلال الدین محمد	15 October 1542 Umerkot, Pakistan	11 February 1556 – 27 October 1605 (49 years 9 months 0 days)	27 October 1605 (aged 63) Agra, India
4	Jahangir جہانگیر	Nur al-Din Muhammad نور الدین محمد	31 August 1569 Agra, India	3 November 1605 – 28 October 1627 (21 years 11 months 23 days)	28 October 1627 (aged 58) Jammu and Kashmir, India
5	Shah Jahan شاہ جہان	Shihab al-Din Muhammad شہاب الدین محمد	5 January 1592 Lahore, Pakistan	19 January 1628 – 31 July 1658 (30 years 8 months 25 days)	22 January 1666 (aged 74) Agra, India
6	Aurangzeb اورنگزیب Alamgir عالمگیر	Muhi al-Din Muhammad محی الدین محمد	3 November 1618 Gujarat, India	31 July 1658 – 3 March 1707 (48 years 7 months 0 days)	3 March 1707 (aged 88) Ahmednagar, India
7	Azam Shah اعظم شاہ	Qutb al-Din Muhammad قطب الدين محمد	28 June 1653 Burhanpur, India	14 March 1707 – 20 June 1707	20 June 1707 (aged 53) Agra, India
8	Bahadur Shah بہادر شاہ	Qutb al-Din Muhammad قطب الدین محمد	14 October 1643 Burhanpur, India	19 June 1707 – 27 February 1712 (4 years, 253 days)	27 February 1712 (aged 68) Lahore, Pakistan
9	Jahandar Shah جہاندار شاہ	Muiz al-Din Muhammad معز الدین محمد	9 May 1661 Deccan, India	27 February 1712 – 11 February 1713 (0 years, 350 days)	12 February 1713 (aged 51) Delhi, India
10	Farrukh Siyar فرخ سیر	Sayyids of Barha	20 August 1685 Aurangabad, India	11 January 1713 – 28 February 1719 (6 years, 48 days)	19 April 1719 (aged 33) Delhi, India
11	Rafi ud-Darajat رفیع الدرجات	Sayyids of Barha	1 December 1699	28 February 1719 – 6 June 1719 (0 years, 98 days)	6 June 1719 (aged 19) Agra, India
12	Shah Jahan II شاہ جہان دوم	Sayyids of Barha	5 January 1696	6 June 1719 – 17 September 1719 (0 years, 105 days)	18 September 1719 (aged 23) Agra, India
13	Muhammad Shah محمد شاہ	Sayyids of Barha	7 August 1702 Ghazni, Afghanistan	27 September 1719 – 26 April 1748 (28 years, 212 days)	26 April 1748 (aged 45) Delhi, India
14	Ahmad Shah Bahadur احمد شاہ بہادر	Mujahid al-Din Muhammad مجاہد الدین محمد	23 December 1725 Delhi, India	29 April 1748 – 2 June 1754 (6 years, 37 days)	1 January 1775 (aged 49) Delhi, India
15	Alamgir II عالمگیر دوم	Aziz al-Din Muhammad عزیز اُلدین محمد	6 June 1699 Burhanpur, India	3 June 1754 – 29 November 1759 (5 years, 180 days)	29 November 1759 (aged 60) Kotla Fateh Shah, India
16	Shah Jahan III شاہ جہان سوم	Muhi al-Millat محی اُلملت	1711	10 December 1759 – 10 October 1760 (282 days)	1772 (aged 60–61)
17	Shah Alam II شاہ عالم دوم	Jalal al-Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar جلال الدین علی گوہر	25 June 1728 Delhi, India	10 October 1760 – 31 July 1788 (27 years, 301 days)	19 November 1806 (aged 78) Delhi, India
18	Shah Jahan IV جہان شاه چہارم	Bidar Bakht Mahmud Shah Bahadur Jahan Shah  بیدار بخت محمود شاه بهادر جہان شاہ	1749 Delhi, India	31 July 1788 – 11 October 1788 (63 days)	1790 (aged 40–41) Delhi, India
17	Shah Alam II شاہ عالم دوم	Jalal al-Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar جلال الدین علی گوہر Puppet King under the Maratha Empire	25 June 1728 Delhi, India	16 October 1788 – 19 November 1806 (18 years, 339 days)	19 November 1806 (aged 78) Delhi, India
19	Akbar Shah II اکبر شاہ دوم	Muin al-Din Muhammad میرزا اکبر Puppet King under the East India Company	22 April 1760 Mukundpur, India	19 November 1806 – 28 September 1837 (30 years, 321 days)	28 September 1837 (aged 77) Delhi, India
20	Bahadur Shah II Zafar بہادر شاہ ظفر	Abu Zafar Siraj al-Din Muhammad ابو ظفر سراج اُلدین محمد	24 October 1775 Delhi, India	28 September 1837 – 21 September 1857 (19 years, 360 days)	7 November 1862 (aged 87) Rangoon, Myanmar

See also

• Mughal dynasty
• Flags of the Mughal Empire
• Mughal emperors
• List of Mongol states
• Mansabdar
• Mughal people
• Mughal Harem
• Mughal weapons
• Mughal architecture
• Mughlai cuisine
• Mughal-Mongol genealogy
• Islam in South Asia
• Siege of Orchha

References

Footnotes

1. ^ The title (Mirza) descends to all the sons of the family, without exception. In the royal family it is placed after the name instead of before it, thus, Abbas Mirza and Hosfiein Mirza. Mirza is a civil title, and Khan is a military one. The title of Khan is creative, but not hereditary.^[5]

Citations

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5. ^ Morier 1812, p. 601.
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   , We have seen that there is considerable uncertainty about the size of India's population c.1595. Serious assessments vary from 116 to 145 million (with an average of 125 million). However, the true figure could even be outside of this range. Accordingly, while it seems likely that the population grew over the course of the seventeenth century, it is unlikely that we will ever have a good idea of its size in 1707. That said, we do know that the main concentrations of people were in the core Mughal provinces i.e. Lahore, Delhi, Agra, Awadh, and Allahabad. It was their high rural densities that ultimately sustained the main cities with all of their complexity and culture. There were, of course, sizeable rural populations supporting substantial, if lesser, urban centres elsewhere—for example in Gujarat, and on rivers like the Kaveri and the Godavari. Moreover, there were major concentrations of people on both the coastal plains.
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Further reading

• Alam, Muzaffar. Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh & the Punjab, 1707–48 (1988)
• Ali, M. Athar (1975), "The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case", Modern Asian Studies, 9 (3): 385–396,
  S2CID 143861682
  , on the causes of its collapse
• Asher, C.B.; Talbot, C (2008), India Before Europe,
  ISBN 978-0-521-51750-8
• Black, Jeremy. "The Mughals Strike Twice", History Today (April 2012) 62#4 pp. 22–26. full text online
• Blake, Stephen P. (November 1979), "The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals", Journal of Asian Studies, 39 (1): 77–94,
  S2CID 154527305
• Conan, Michel (2007). Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity : Questions, Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective. Dumbarton Oaks.
  ISBN 978-0-88402-329-6. Archived
  from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
• Dale, Stephen F. The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals (Cambridge U.P. 2009)
• Dalrymple, William (2007). The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty : Delhi, 1857. Random House Digital, Inc.
  ISBN 978-0-307-26739-9
  .
• Faruqui, Munis D. (2005), "The Forgotten Prince: Mirza Hakim and the Formation of the Mughal Empire in India", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 48 (4): 487–523,
  JSTOR 25165118
  , on Akbar and his brother
• Gommans; Jos. Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500–1700 (Routledge, 2002) online edition Archived 2 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine
• Gordon, S. The New Cambridge History of India, II, 4: The Marathas 1600–1818 (Cambridge, 1993).
• Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
• Markovits, Claude, ed. (2004) [First published 1994 as Histoire de l'Inde Moderne]. A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 (2nd ed.). London: Anthem Press.
  ISBN 978-1-84331-004-4. Archived
  from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
• ISBN 978-0-521-68225-1, archived
  from the original on 2 July 2023, retrieved 19 October 2015
• Moosvi, Shireen (2015) [First published 1987]. The economy of the Mughal Empire, c. 1595: a statistical study (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-19-908549-1. Archived
  from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
• Morier, James (1812). "A journey through Persia, Armenia and Asia Minor". The Monthly Magazine. Vol. 34. R. Phillips. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
• Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2. Archived
  from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
• Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1974). The Mughul Empire. B.V. Bhavan.
• Richards, J.F. (April 1981), "Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23 (2): 285–308,
  S2CID 154809724
• Robb, P. (2001), A History of India, London: Palgrave,
  ISBN 978-0-333-69129-8
• Srivastava, Ashirbadi Lal. The Mughul Empire, 1526–1803 (1952) online.
• Rutherford, Alex (2010). Empire of the Moghul: Brothers at War: Brothers at War. Headline.
  ISBN 978-0-7553-8326-9. Archived
  from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2019.
• ISBN 978-0-631-20546-3
• ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6, archived
  from the original on 12 July 2023, retrieved 19 October 2015

Culture

• Berinstain, V. Mughal India: Splendour of the Peacock Throne (London, 1998).
• Busch, Allison. Poetry of Kings: The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India (2011) excerpt and text search Archived 29 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
• Parodi, Laura E. (2021). "Kabul, a Forgotten Mughal Capital: Gardens, City, and Court at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century". Muqarnas Online. 38 (1): 113–153.
  S2CID 245040517
  .
• Diana Preston; Michael Preston (2007). Taj Mahal: Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire. Walker & Company.
  ISBN 978-0-8027-1673-6
  .
• Schimmel, Annemarie. The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture (Reaktion 2006)
• Welch, S.C.; et al. (1987). The Emperors' album: images of Mughal India. New York: The
  ISBN 978-0-87099-499-9. Archived
  from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2013.

Society and economy

• Chaudhuri, K.N. (1978), "Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India", Modern Asian Studies, 12 (1): 77–96,
  S2CID 146558617
• Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
• Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (1963, revised edition 1999).
• Heesterman, J.C. (2004), "The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire: A Brief Introduction", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 47 (3): 292–297,
  JSTOR 25165051
• Khan, Iqtidar Alam (1976), "The Middle Classes in the Mughal Empire", Social Scientist, 5 (1): 28–49,
  JSTOR 3516601
• Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993)

Primary sources

• Bernier, Francois (1891). Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656–1668. Archibald Constable, London.
• Hiro, Dilip, ed, Journal of Emperor Babur (Penguin Classics 2007)
  • The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor ed. by W.M. Thackston Jr. (2002); this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature
• Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. History of India (1907) v. 9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental, by A.V.W. Jackson online edition
• Jouher (1832). The Tezkereh al vakiat or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Humayun Written in the Persian language by Jouher A confidential domestic of His Majesty. Translated by Major Charles Stewart. John Murray, London.

Older histories

• Elliot, Sir H.M., Edited by Dowson, John.
  The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy at Packard Humanities Institute
   – Other Persian Texts in Translation; historical books: Author List and Title List)
• Adams, W.H. Davenport (1893). Warriors of the Crescent. London: Hutchinson.
• Holden, Edward Singleton (1895). The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398–A.D. 1707
  . New York : C. Scribner's Sons.
• Malleson, G.B. (1896). Akbar and the rise of the Mughal empire. Oxford : Clarendon Press.
• Manucci, Niccolao; tr. from French by François Catrou (1826). History of the Mogul dynasty in India, 1399–1657. London : J.M. Richardson.
• Lane-Poole, Stanley (1906). History of India: From Reign of Akbar the Great to the Fall of Moghul Empire (Vol. 4). London, Grolier society.
• Manucci, Niccolao; tr. by William Irvine (1907). Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 1. London, J. Murray.
• Manucci, Niccolao; tr. by William Irvine (1907). Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 2. London, J. Murray.
• Manucci, Niccolao; tr. by William Irvine (1907). Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 3. London, J. Murray.
• Owen, Sidney J (1912). The Fall of the Mogul Empire. London, J. Murray.

External links

• Mughal India an interactive experience from the British Museum
• The Mughal Empire, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Susan Stronge & Chandrika Kaul (In Our Time, 26 February 2004)
• Sunil Khilnani's "Akbar," From BBC Radio 4's Incarnations: India in 50 Lives.