Army of the Mughal Empire
Mughal Army ارتش مغول | |
---|---|
Mughal Emperor | |
Grand-Vizier | Mughal Vazere'azam |
Personnel | |
Military age | 15-25 years |
Available for military service | 911,400-4,039,097 infantry[2] 342,696 cavalry[2] 4.4 million[3]-26 million in total[4], age 15–49 |
Expenditures | |
Budget | 12,071,876,840 dams[2] |
The Army of the Mughal Empire was the force by which the
During the 17th century, the Mughal empire possessed the largest military on earth,[5] with its strength numbering 911,400-4,039,097 infantry and 342,696 cavalry.[2] Alternatively, according to the census by Abul Fazl, the size of the army was roughly about flat 4.4 million, with less than half a million trained as cavalry.[6]: 89–90 [3] While modern India historians put far bigger number in 26 million personnels.[4]
The Mughal is considered as dominant military force in India.[7] Employing their superior engineering to military affairs and logistic mastery, historians has compared Mughal army brute force with a Roman Empire or United States Armed Forces.[8]: 276 [6]: 158 Stephen Morillo also noted about western scholarship generally overlooked on how destructive is was Asian empires such as the Mughal in their conquest, not unlike the Roman empire.[9] British historian Jeremy Black viewed that the Mughal military struggles until their decline in the wake of Nader Shah's invasion of India has reflected the Asiatic military development in the 17th century. Black's evaluation contrasted other modern military historians view that the Asian military during that era were influenced by in Military Revolution Europe.[10] Indian Historian Pradeep P. Barua also remarked that the successful takeover of Mughal rule in India by the British Raj was not stemmed from advance the British military organization, technology, or fighting skill. but it rather because the British Raj could offer political stability with their civil administrations after the decline of Mughal authority in India .[3]: 119
Other expert such as Irfan Habib noted that Mughal cavalry are invincible in Indian subcontinent.[11] The superiority of their heavy cavalry discipline and shock charge were a staple of Mughal cavalry.[12][13]
Mughal artillery consisted of
Heavy cannons were very expensive and heavy for transportation, and had to be dragged by elephants and oxen into the battlefield.The Mughal naval fprces were named Amla-e-Nawara. It is recorded that In Dhaka alone, the Amla-e-Nawara fleet contains 768 ships with 933 foreigner crews of Portuguese origin and of 8,112 artillery personnel in the eastern part.[16] They maintained fleets of warships and transport ships.[17]
History
List of conflicts involving the Mughals:
- Conquest of Babur (1504-1528)
- Mughal–Rajput Wars(1526–1779)
- Mughal–Afghan Wars (1526–1752)
- Mughal-Sur conflict (1535–1558)
- Second battle of Panipat(1558)
- Conquest of Malwa (1560–1570)
- Mughal-Farooqui conflict (1561–1601)
- Conquest of Gujarat (1572-1573)
- Conquest of Bengal sultanate in Tukaroi & Rajmahal(1572-1576)
- Mughal-Koch Bihar conflict (1587–1680)
- Mughal–Persian Wars(1605–1739)
- First Mughal–Safavid War(1622–1623)
- Second Mughal–Safavid War(1649–1653)
- Conquest of Taraf (1610)
- Conquest of Jessore (1611-1612 )
- Mughal–Ahom Wars (1616–1682)
- Mir Jumla's invasion of Assam (1662-1663)
- Dano-Mughal War (1642-1698)
- Mughal–Sikh Wars (1621–1783)
- Mughal-Bijapur War (1657-1686)
- Siege of Bidar (1657)
- Siege of Bijapur (1686)
- Conquest of Chittagong (1665–1666)
- Gokula Singh rebellion (1670)
- Mughal–Tibet Wars(1679–1684)
- Mughal–Portuguese conflicts (1535–1693)
- Siege of Hooghly (1632)
- Mughal–Portuguese War (1692–1693)
- Mughal–Maratha Wars(1680–1707)
- Mughal–East India Company Wars(1686–1857)
- Mughal Civil Wars (1627–1720)
- Nader Shah's invasion of India (1738–1740)
- Indian Rebellion of 1857 (1857-1858)
The Mughals originated in Central Asia. Like many Central Asian armies, the mughal army of Babur was horse-oriented. The ranks and pay of the officers were based on the horses they retained. Babur's army was small and inherited the Timurid military traditions of central Asia.[18] It would be wrong to assume that Babur introduced a gunpowder warfare system, because mounted archery remained the vital part of his army.[19] Babur's empire did not last long and the mughal empire collapsed with the expulsion of Humayun, and the mughal empire founded by Akbar in 1556 proved more stable and enduring.[20]
Babur to Humayun era
Babur nevertheless laying his foundation of the empire military from First Battle of Panipat, where he employ the tactic of Tulugma, encircling Ibrahim Lodi's army and forcing it to face artillery fire directly, as well as frightening its war elephants,[21] until his final subjugation of Rajputs in the battle of Chanderi.[22][23] The reign of his successor, Humayun were characterized with the conflict against Sur Empire] under Sher Shah Suri when after securing his throne, Humayun neutralized threat from Ahmed Shah had to be met. Humayun was victorious annexing Gujarat, Malwa, Champaner and the great fort of Mandu.[24] Sher Shah, who at first remained in Agra and observed Mughal military organization, as well as their administration, once recorded about how the Mughal empire military.[25][26] While conversing with a friend, Sher Shah remarked:
If luck and fortune favor me I will very shortly expel the Mughals from Hind, for the Mughals are not superior to the Afghans in battle or single combat, but the Afghans have let the Empire of Hindo slip from their hands on account of their internal dissensions. Since I have been amongst the Mughals, and know their conduct in action, I see that they have no order or discipline and that their kings from pride of birth and station do not personally superintend the government and leave all the affair and business of the state to their nobles and ministers, in whose sayings and doings they put perfect confidence. These grandees act on corrupt motives in every case whether it be of a soldier or a cultivator, or of a rebellious zamindar.[27]
In 1535 Humayun was made aware that the Sultan of Gujarat was planning an assault on the Mughal territories in Bayana with Portuguese aid. Humayun gathered an army and marched on Bahadur.[29]: 107 However, instead of pressing his attack, Humayun ceased the campaign and consolidated his newly conquered territory, as Sultan Bahadur escaped and took up refuge with the Portuguese.[30] Shortly after Humayun had marched on Gujarat, Sher Shah Suri saw an opportunity to wrest control of Agra from the Mughals.[29]: 107 Humayun, faced with the rising threat of the Afghans in the east led by Mahmud Lodi,[31] defeated a force of them at Dadrah in 1532, and besieged Chunar following this in September 1532, which was under the control of Sher Shah. The siege continued for over four months to no avail. As a result, Sher Shah offered his loyalty to the Mughals on the condition that he remained in control of Chunar, also sending one of his sons as hostage. Humayun accepted and lifted the siege in December 1532, returning to Agra due to the rising threat of Bahadur Shah, the ruler of the Gujarat Sultanate. Humayun did not wish to split up his forces under the command of a noble to continue the siege, as this would split his strength.[32][33][34] The hostility of Sher Shah towards Bengal Sultanate prompted its ruler to request aid from Humayun, who in turn mobilized a Mughal army in July 1537, and advanced to Chunar. Humayun reached the fort in November 1537 and laid siege to it. The siege would last over six months until the fort finally fell despite the attempts from Rumi Khan to make quick work of the city. Sher Shah then led a second invasion into Bengal, seizing Rohtasgarh in March 1538, which he used to situate Afghan families and loot he obtained during the war. Sher Shah followed his victory at Rohtasgarh by besieging Gauda, which fell to the Afghan forces in April 1538.[35][31][36] With these victories, Sher Shah held his first coronation.[37][38] However, Humayun did not wish to leave Bengal in the hands of a hostile state.[39][40] Following this, Humayun began his march to Bengal against Sher Shah, however the march of the Mughal army would be overwhelmed from poor weather conditions, with rains causing the loss of his baggage between Patna and Monghyr.[41] Humayun eventually reached Gauda and seized it without any opposition on 8 September 1538.[31] Humayun remained at Gaur for months, stuck there due to the weather as he restored order into the city, while at the same time Sher Shah drove deep into his territory, seizing Bihar and Varanasi, while also recovering control over Chunar, and laying siege to Jaunpur, with other detachments of the Afghan army extending as far as Kannauj.[40] Humayun crossed the Karmanasa River, where he could easily be attacked by the Afghans. Sher Shah, seeing the fragile state of the Mughal army, attacked the Mughal army led by Humayun at the Battle of Chausa. The Afghans descended on the Mughals and caught them off guard, and resulted in the complete rout of the Mughals. Humayun barely escaped with his life, and the Mughals suffered over 7,000 dead, with many prominent noblemen killed.[42][43][44] Following his defeat, Humayun returned to Agra, and restored order after disturbances from his brother, Hindal Mirza. Humayun mobilized a large force, and advanced with an army of 40,000, while Sher Shah amassed 15,000. Humayun met Sher Shah at Kannauj, with both armies mirroring each other across the Ganges river. Humayun crossed the river and began skirmishing with Sher Shah's army. Amidst the fighting, Humayun's army saw many nobles hiding their insignia to prevent them from being recognized by the Afghans, with many nobles also fleeing from the battle. The Mughal army was defeated, which led to Humayun fleeing to Sindh. Following this victory, Sher Shah was crowned a second time on 17 May 1540 as Sher Shah, being declared as Emperor of Northern India.[45][46][47]
After Sher Shah Suri successor Islam Shah, died in 1554, Humayun gathered a vast army with the help Safavid role in Humayun's army, which its vast majority of the army of the Shi'a faith, as one Shaikh Ahmad described to Humayun, "My king, I see the whole of your army are
Akbar era
During the last stage of the conflict against
By 1559, the Mughals launched a drive into Rajputana and
In 1570, a deviant Sufism movement which preaching Wahdat al-Wujud grow in Peshawar, which founded by their charismatic leader Pir Roshan.[64][65] The Roshani movement played an important part in politically in resisting the increasing influence of Mughals in Afghan region as they gained popular supports from the Afghanis.[65] Pir Roshan spent his life in conflict with the Mughals until his death in 1572.[65] His successors continued his struggle against the Mughals, and even captured Ghazni city at one point, prompting emperor Jahangir to deal with the rebellion more seriously, which after constant battles against the sect, the movement eventually weakened and ended.[65]
In 1572, the
In the end of 1577, as Wazír Khán's management was not successful, the post of viceroy was conferred upon Shaháb-ud-dín Áhmed Khán, the governor of Malwa. Shaháb-ud-dín's first step was to create new military posts and strengthen the old ones.[72] Later in 1591, Akbar faced another rebellion in Gujarat, where this time he faced the alliance of Gujarat Sultanate, Nawanagar State, Cutch State, and .[73][74][75]Muli State.[73][74][75] Akbar then sent Mirza Aziz Koka to engage them in the Battle of Bhuchar Mori.[73][76][74][77][78] The Mughal forces soundly defeated the allied force, and Mirza Aziz plundered Nawanangar.[79]
In the year 1594, Jahangir was dispatched by his father, the Emperor
Jahangir to Shah Jahan era
In 1608, Jahangir posted
Later, in 1612 At the time of the Mughal invasion of the
In 1613, Jahangir issued a sanguinary order for the extirpation of the race of the
In 1615, after a year of a harsh
During the conquest of Kangra under Jahangir, that at the presence of Mughal scholar Ahmad Sirhindi who directly observing the campaign, the Mughal forces had the Idols broken, a cow slaughtered, Khutbah sermon read, and other Islamic rituals performed.[110] Further mark of Jahangir departure from Akbar secular policy were recorded Terry, a traveller, who came and observed India region between 1616-1619, where he found the mosques full of worshippers, the exaltation of Quran and Hadith practical teaching, and the complete observance of Fasting during Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr celebrations.[110] Aurangzeb, son of Shah Jahan, has let the Mughal empire engaging various military campaign, including the pacification of the Bundela Rajputs in Siege of Orchha in year of 1635.[29][111]
Aurangzeb era
In 1657, emperor Aurangzeb and his army advanced towards Bijapur and besieged Bidar.[112] Thus, wealthy city of Bidar has annexed by Mughal.[113]
In 1659, Aurangzeb sent his general
During Aurangzeb rule, the Mughal empire manage to subdue the Ahom kingdom under the leadership of Mir Jumla II in 1662, who conquered its capital, Garhgaon, and capture 100 elephants, 300000 coins, 8000 shields, 1000 ships, and 173 massive rice stores.[119]
In 1669,
In 1683, a Maratha warlord Sambhaji launched conquest of Goa, which almost eliminated the Portuguese presence in that region.[132] However, suddenly Mughal forces appeared and prevented the annihilation of Portuguese in Goa from the Maratha army.[132]
In 1685, the Mughal besieged Bijapur Fort, hwhich was well-defended by 30,000 men led by Sikandar Adil Shah and his commander Sarza Khan. at first, the bombards by Mughal cannon batteries were repulsed by the large and heavy Bijapur guns,[133] such as the famous "Malik-i-Maidan", which fired cannonballs 69 cm in diameter. Instead of capturing territories on open ground, the Mughals dug long trenches and carefully placed their artillery but made no further advancements. The Mughals could not cross through the deep 10-ft moat surrounding Bijapur Fort. Moreover, the 50-ft high 25-ft wide fine granite and lime mortar walls were almost impossible to breach. The situation for the Mughals worsened when Maratha forces led by Melgiri Pandit under Maratha Emperor Sambhaji had severed food, gunpowder and weapon supplies arriving from the Mughal garrison at Solapur.[134] The Mughals were now struggling on both fronts and became overburdened by the ongoing siege against Adil Shahi and the roving Maratha forces. Things worsened when a Bijapuri cannonball struck a Mughal gunpowder position causing a massive explosion into the trenches that killed 500 infantrymen.[135] After 18 months, In 1686, the Mughal managed to annexed Bijapur, after Siege of Bijapur, after Aurangzeb paying every soldiers with gold coins for each bucket of muds thrown into the moat, filling it with even corpses of men and animals, allowing the Mughal forces to storm the fortress.[136] to celebrate this victory, Aurangzeb spread his coins, mounting the throne of Adil Shahi sultan, and also carving the great cannon Malik-e-Maidan.[136] This event caused the commercial treaty between the Purtuguese with Sultanate of Bijapur on October 22, 1576 being annulled.[137]
in January 1687, Mughal empire
In 1689, Aurangzeb's forces captured and executed successor of Shivaji,
Aurangzeb also subsequently facing the rebellion of the Sikh in 1701.[142] At first, the Sikh were incited by Guru Gobind Singh to form khalsa groups of militant movements which faced rejection by local hill chiefs.[142] Then as the Sikh Khalsas fought and defeat those hill chiefs in the Battle of Anandpur (1700), they immediately appealed to Aurangzeb for assistance from Aurangzeb, which responded by sending instructions to the Mughal officials in Punjab to take action against the Sikh.[142] Wazir Khan, the governor of Sirhind, immediately sent his forces, where they subdued the Sikh in the second battle of Anandpur in 1703-1704.[142] Another battle were fought in Chamkaur Sahib where two more sons of Guru Gobind were slain.[142] Then in 1706, another military operation undergoes in Khidrana or Muktsar in effort to further suppress the rebellion, which followed with Guru Gobind move to Talwandi Sabo or Dam Dama.[142]
Aurangzeb waged continuous war in the Deccan for more than two decades with no resolution.[143][page range too broad] He thus lost about a fifth of his army fighting rebellions led by the Marathas in Deccan India. He travelled a long distance to the Deccan to conquer the Marathas and eventually died of natural cause at the age of 88, while still fighting the Marathas.[144]
Land forces
At their height of Mughal military domination in India region, opponents of the Mughal rarely dared to confront them in frontal pitch battles, such as when the Marathas, Ahmadnagar Sultanates,[3]: 38 or the Rajput kingdoms as they are powerless against Mughal provisioned cities or artillery defended camps.[145] and usually resorted to guerilla, Fabian strategy instead to oppose the technologically more advanced Mughal military machine,[6]: 56 The massive army of Mughals were operated in highly disciplined fashion, while also maintain a characteristic of multiethnicities among its personnels.[146] They has absorbed the whole northern and central south Asia except for some geographically isolated, or strategically insignificant settlements.[147]
Mughal emperors themselves maintained a small standing army, Instead the officers called mansabdars provided the bulk of the Mughal armed forces. Under Akbar, there are as many as 1,600 Mansabdars employed.[148] While during the reign of Shah Jahan, Mansabdars were growing into 8,000 officers.[148]
-
Man Singh I a Predominant Mansabdar
-
Head of the Wala-Shahis, Khan-i Dauran
A Mansabdar officer worked for the government who was responsible for recruiting and maintaining his quota of horsemen, where practically most of Mughal armies were under Mansabdar officers.
Furthermore, the administrative positions of the Mughal central government were mirrored at the provincial level.[151] with Bakhshi officers charged with the management and payment of the province's military. The provincial bakhshi often simultaneously served the function of the province's waqia-navis (news writer), and reported on all provincial mansabdars, including its senior officials (such as the subahdar or diwan).The role of provincial bakhshi could face tension from the subahdar or diwan, since the bakhshi's activities kept these officials accountable to the imperial centre.[152][153]
Meanwhile, personal royal army which under the direct command of the emperor were numbered around 24,000 soldiers.[148] These emperor personal standing armies were called Ahadis,[148] a body of cavalry trooper.[154] They were directly recruited by the Mughal emperor himself, mainly from the emperor's own blood relatives and tribesmen. They had their own pay roll and pay master, and were better paid than normal horsemen sowars. They were gentlemen soldiers, some of them normally in administrative duties in the palace.[citation needed] Another term for the Mughal emperor personal bodyguards which associated with the Ahadis was the Walashahis(lit. belonging to the king[154]), or imperial bodyguards, which regarded as the most trusted and faithful part of the troops, being directly in the pay of the Emperor.[155] They also serve as cavalrymen, similar to Ahadis.[154] They were chiefly, if not entirely, men who had been attached to the Emperor from his youth and had served him while he was only a prince and were thus marked out in a special manner as his personal attendants and household troops.[156]
The Mughal army generally divided into four branches: the cavalry (Aswaran), the infantry (Paidgan), the artillery (Topkhana) and the navy. These were not divisions with their own commanders, instead they were branches or classes that were distributed individually amongst the Mansabdars, each of whom had some of each of these divisions. The exception to this rule was the artillery, which was a specialized corps with its own designated commander, and was not part of the mansabdari troops.[4] The Mughals also carried on the tradition of harsh execution of mutineers by strapping them into the mouth of cannon and blowing them apart by the cannon shot.[157][158] This brutal tradition was copied by the British empire military to punish their own mutineers.[159][160][161]
Mobile Imperial camp & fortresses
The Mughal imperial camp, known as "The exalted camp" or "The victorious camp", were used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a mobile, "de facto" administrative capital and also imperial army headquarters, where it is manned hundreds of thousands of people and the 50,000 horses and oxen required to transport tents, baggage and equipment as its challenge.[1] Vincent Smith further writes that the Mughal Camp was like a moving city from one place to other while Jean-Baptiste Tavernier discussing about the mode of travelling in India observed that manner of travelling in India those days is very convenient like Italy or France.[162]
This mobile military capital were constructed by more than 2,000 personnel and labourers sent on ahead of the main imperial party.[1] From the time of Akbar, Mughal military camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance was carried out within, while the Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps.[163] Akbar's entourage included small camps for journeys or hunting and large camps for royal tours and military campaigns, where it could accommodate 300000 people.[164] It is estimated the large camp were travelling in 16 km perday.[165] however, another estimation has the camp rarely traveled more than 6 km per day and was preceded by agents, scouts and workers who prepared roads and bridges, campsites, arranged the purchase of foodstuffs and fuel and assured the cooperation of local rulers.[1]
As army mansabdars, royal household, domestic servants and others presented a picture of a well-planned city, moving from one place to another place, traveller Niccolao Manucci who witnessed the grandeur has written that the grandeur of Mughal rulers entourage far greater than any European rulers.
The massive mobile military encampment administration of emperor Akbar, which followed by his successors, were coincided with the centralization policies which were practiced by the nomadic military style of his predecessor of Central Asian conquerors, such as the Mongols of Genghis Khan, Timur empire, and Babur[164] With the nomadic steppe culture in mind, it is recorded this model of military administration by focusing on highly mobile imperial tourage of their soldiers and followers camps as a way to gain the prestige and loyalty.[164] Babur himself wrote frequently about pitching his camp throughout Hindustan as he advanced.[164] The rationale of military strategy and political necessity—surrounded by raiding nomadic empires was such of mobile technology that allowed Babur to remain elusive to his opponents.[164] Regardless of his defeats in battle, Babur maintained control by monopolizing control of his subjects' movements, deciding which paths they would take as they maneuvered around Hindustan in their struggle for power.[164]
Aside from such military administration semi-permanent building, the Mughal empire also erected permanent military fortresses such as Lalbagh Fort,[166] Allahabad Fort,[167] Red Fort,[168] Balapur Fort, and Purana Qila.[169] Furthermore, the Mughal empire also inherited chain of forts, or qilas, which scattered throughout the Deccan.[170]
Manpowers & weapons
Around 17th century AD, the dynasty was ruling the wealthiest empire in the world, with also the largest military on earth.[5] Mughals had approximately 24 percent share of world's economy and a military of million paid soldiers.[4][171][172] J. C. Sharman, Political scientist, has viewed the Mughal empire as centralized power of Indian region as one of Asian great power like Ming in context of population, riches, and military power that were unheard of in comparison with the contemporary European powers at their time.[173] Stephen Rosen calculated show that even the most conservative figures for Indian soldiers percapita are at least as high as those for Europe at the end of the Thirty Years' War in 1650, which is 550,000, or 0.5 percent of a population of some 105 million (Europewest of the Urals, including Scandinavia, Britain, European Russia, Spain, and the Balkans).[3]
The theoretical potential manpower of Mughal empire in 1647 according to Kaushik Roy from Jadavpur University, could reached 911,400 cavalry and infantry. However, Kaushik Roy also quoted the accumulation the imperial revenue of 12,071,876,840 dams has been calculated by Streissand who translated that the Mughal empire military could support about 342,696 cavalry and 4,039,097 infantry in total,[2] While F. Valentijn estimate higher numbers than 4000000 in 1707.[174] It further illustrated that during Shah Jahan reign, in 1647 the Mughal army composed of about 911,400 infantry and cavalry, while for span of 1627-58, there are 47,000 mounted musketeers, foot musketeers, gunners, and archers.[175] Antoni de Montserrat has recorded in his work Mongolicae Legationis Commentarius, For the Mughal–Afghan Wars alone, emperor Akbar could muster 50000 cavalry, 500 war elephants and camels, along with "countless number of infantry".[146] de Montserrat also provided information that the Mughal army under Akbar consisted of multiethnicities, such as Persians, Turkmen, Chagatais, Uzbeks, Pashtuns, Gujaratis, Pathans, Rajputs, and Balochis.[146] Dirk H. A. Kolff opined this high estimate of figures were rather essentially an "inventory of military labors" available for hiring in single operation.[176]
The Ain-i-Akbari gives the empire's high estimation number of soldiers in the 1590s as 4 million, which includes local militia, consisting mainly of foot soldiers outside of Mughal control. This represents 3 percent of an estimated Indian population of 135 million in 1600.[3] This Mughals numbers do not mention the forces fighting for the Marathas, the Deccan sultanates, and the Rajput clans opposed to the Mughals.[3] Stephen Peter Rosen further adding that the 4,4 millions of Mughal military population were somewhat lowest estimation, since he found that the Ain-i-Akbari census were too conservative as it does not cover the military pool of the southern area of India. so Peter Rosen suggested the realistic number of the overall Mughal military power were above 4,4 millions, which he suggested the number of about 4 percents of Indian population of that time.[8] Meanwhile, far higher estimation came from Abraham Eraly, who quoted Tapan Raychaudhuri work that the raw number of potential bodies of Mughal military service, along its quasi-military forces, has reached as astronomical as 26 millions potential personnel.[4] Eraly has further added the reflection of massive numbers of this Mughal military expenses in the case of Aurangzeb, who has brought about 170000 cavalry troopers and similar number of infantry and non-combatant personnels, for a campaign in Deccan alone.[4] Eraly also quoted Aurangzeb predecessor, Shah Jahan, who has boasted about 900000 army command.[4]
Other estimation came from historian Abdul-Hamid Lahori recorded the Mughal military strength in 1647 are 200,000 stipendiary cavalry, 185,000 other cavalry, and 40,000 garrisoned musketeers and gunners..
When the Portuguese reached India in 1498, they brought with them firearms, among them the matchlock musket. However, expert armorers were already plentiful in India, and native craftsmen began to copy the weapons and adapting them for their own needs.[178] These indigenous matchlocks were called Toradar.[179] They were found mostly in the Mughal-influenced Northern and Central India.[179] Two types of Toradar exist: one has a very slim, from 3 feet (91 cm) to 6 feet (180 cm) long, straight stock with pentagonal-shaped section, and a light barrel; the other type is always between 5 feet (150 cm) to 6 feet (180 cm) long, has a curved stock with diamond-shaped section and a very heavy barrel, much enlarged at the breech.[179]
Under the Mughals, the most important centers of production of military equipment were Delhi and Lahore.[180] The Rajput Shamserbaz infantry enlisted in Mughal service were armed with halberd, mace, while some of othem also equipped with Sword-and-buckler set and also two-handed sword similar with western Zweihänder, where they act like central european Doppelsöldner on the offensive.[6]: 89–90
Cavalry
The cavalry was the most superior branch of the Mughal army. By the time of emperor Jahangir, it is recorded that the Mughal empire has maintained in total 342,696 cavalry.
Based on
In times of crisis at battle, the Muslim Mughals would perform a type of fighting called Utara,[188] the act of dismounting from their horses and fighting on foot until they were killed rather than ride away and escape with their lives.[189]
The key to Mughal power in India was its use of warhorses and also its control of the supply of superior warhorses from Central Asia. This was confirmed by victories in the Battle of Panipat, the Battle of Machhiwara, Battle of Dharmatpur, and in eyewitness accounts such as Father Monserrate, which primarily featured the use of traditional Turko-Mongol horse archer tactics rather than gunpowder.[184] Well-bred horses were either imported from Arabia, Iran or Central Asia, or bred in Sindh, Rajasthan and parts of Punjab. Emperors at times also issued firman or imperial mandates on regular intervals addressing officials like mansabdars, kotwals, zamindars and mutasaddis for the remission of taxes for promoting the horse trade.[190][155] In the battle against Hemu, the Mughal army led by Ali Quli Khan Shaibani with three sections of cavalry vanguard with the centre were composed of 10,000 cavalry.[191] This formation included Bairam Khan's detachment of Turks.[191] Later, by the reign of Aurangzeb, the Mughal army was mainly composed of Indian Muslims.[192]
There are unique characteristics of cavalry host among each individual Subahdar governors, as the example were recorded that the father of Shuja-ud-Daula, Safdar Jang, the governor of Awadh, had maintained a contingent of 20,000 "Mughal" cavalry, who were mainly Hindustanis, many who were chiefly from the Jadibal district in Kashmir, who had imitated the Qizilbash in dress and spoke the Persian language.[193][194] Meanwhile, The Barha tribe of Indian Muslims traditionally composed the vanguard of the imperial army, which they held the hereditary right to lead in every battle.[195][196]
Camels and Elephants
Mughal cavalry also included
In 1581, Antonio Montserrat recorded that Akbar has brought around 500 elephants and 28 field cannons in his battle against Mirza Hakim,his brother.
Aside from its military purpose, Vikram Aggarwal recorded historical accounts and religious lore together to illustrate elephants significance to Mughal leadership's right to rule, co-opting cultural symbols and repurpose it and thus underscoring the dynamic nature of culture and power in India, As it shown how elephants played major role in the culture of South Asia, as they were seen a symbol of power and reverence since the ancient Vedic period.[202] like the Aryans before them, the Mughals, fully adopted elephant husbandry into the Mughal dynasty.[202]
Some of the Rajput mansabdar's also provided camel cavalry. The Zamburaks or camel units with mounted swivel guns were though as Mughal innovation, as were first mentioned by Bernier, who reports that Aurangzeb took two to three hundred camel- guns with him on his expedition to Kashmir.[203] Its mobility compared to their Gajnal Elephant counterpart were considered pivotal, as those weapons which size are double of normal musket could be shot on top of the camels.[203] Each of two Zamburaks usually attached to the saddle of a camel and the ordnance measured in two haths and forty - six liva.[204]
Infantry
The infantry was recruited either by Mansabdars, or by the emperor himself. The emperor's own infantry was called Ahsam. They were normally ill-paid and ill-equipped, and also lacked discipline.
Banduqchis
The Banduqchis were the
Shamsherbaz
The main infantry was supplemented by specialized units such as the Shamsherbaz. Meaning "sword-wielders" or "gladiators", the Shamsherbaz were elite heavy infantry companies of highly skilled swordsmen. As their name implies, a few of them were assigned to the court to serve as palace guards, or participate in mock-battles of exhibitions of skill. However, tens of thousands of them were assigned to army units by the Mansabdars around the Mughal Empire.[213] The Shamsherbaz were frequently used in siege warfare, where they would be unleashed to deal with the resistance once the walls were breached with explosives or artillery.[214] Much of the Shamsherbaz were recruited from religious sects such as Sufi orders.[215]: 89–90
Many of Rajputs entered service of the Mughal army either as regular soldier or mercenary, as Shamserbaz.[6]
Artillery
The artillery was a specialized corps with its own designated commander, the Mir-i-Atish.[216] The office of Mir-i-Atish grew in importance during the time of the later Mughals.[217] Being in charge of the defense of the Imperial Palace Fort and being in personal contact with the Emperor, the Mir-i-Atish commander great influence.[218] They were somewhat risky to be used in the battlefield, since they exploded sometimes, killing the crew members. Light artillery was the most useful in the battle field. They were mainly made up of bronze and drawn by horses. This also included swivel guns born by camels called zamburak. Since Mughal rule, Indian Muslims maintained the dominance of artillery in India, and even after the fall of the Mughal empire, various non-Muslim Indian kingdoms continued to recruit Hindustani Muslims as artillery officers in their armies.[219] Pradeep Barua also noted the Mughal technology for sapping and mining warfare also saw small improvements from the Delhi sultanates which ruled India before them.[220]
The Mughals artillery corps also employed hand
-
Mughal Archers early 17th century
-
MughalZamburakchi
-
Mughal-era Cannon
Chelas
Chela were slave soldiers in the Mughal army. As a counterpoise to the mercenaries in their employ, over whom they had a very loose hold, commanders were in the habit of getting together, as the kernel of their force, a body of personal dependents or slaves, who had no one to look to except their master. Such troops were known by the Hindi name of chela (a slave). They were fed, clothed, and lodged by their employer, had mostly been brought up and trained by him, and had no other home than his camp. They were recruited chiefly from children taken in war or bought from their parents during times of famine. The great majority were of Hindu origin, but all were made Muslims when received into the body of chelas. These chelas were the only troops on which a man could place entire reliance as being ready to follow his fortunes in both foul and fair weather.[222]
Like the Timurids and other Mongol-derived armies, and unlike other Islamic states, the Mughal empire did not use slave soldiers prominently. Slave soldiers were mainly placed in very lowly positions such as manual labourers, footmen and low-level officers rather than professional elite soldiers like
Female palace guards
During the
The women tasked with the protection of the zenana were commonly of
They are mentioned as early as the reigns of
From the large number of women, who have served as the Urdubegis under Mughal rule, we only know the name of one, that is Bibi Fatima. Her name is mentioned by
The Mughal also maintain considerable naval forces, which named Amla-e-Nawara. It is recorded that In Dhaka alone, the Amla-e-Nawara fleet contains 768 ships with 933 foreigner crews of Portuguese origin and of 8,112 artillery personnel in the eastern part.[16] To support the maritime operations, Mughal grand vizier Mir Jumla repaired and fortified three river forts, Hajiganj Fort, Sonakanda Fort, and Idrakpur Fort between 1660-1663.[231][16] The Navy's main duty was controlling piracy, sometimes used in war.[232] It is known from the standard survey of maritime technology in 1958, that the Bengalis expertize on shipbuilding were duplicated by The British East India Company in the 1760s, which leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution.[233] Among them, there are 923 Portuguese sailors in service of Akbar.[234]
Ships
According to records in the Mughal invasion on kingdom of Ahom, the characteristic of Ghurab warships of Mughals in Bengal regions were Ghurab warships which were outfitted with 14 guns.[235] the personnels were numbered around 50 to 60 crews.[235] The officers of those ships were conscripted from Dutch, Portuguese, British, and Russian naval officers.[235]
Another Mughal warships characteristics were their strength and their size, due to the shipbuilding skills of their Bengalis shipbuilder.
For the two decades in the end of 16th century of their operation in Bengal, The Mughal empire with faced difficulties when it dealing with the rainy climate and the geography of Bengal region which contain large portions of Ganges rivers delta, as any attempts for military conquests practically turn into amphibious operations. Their opponents were the local warlords which owned large quantities of Warships. Those locals also assisted by the pirates from Portuguese from Goa region and also some Dutch empire, although some of the Portuguese instead assisted the Mughal empire. To mitigate this problems, the Mughals constructed some economical river dedicated fortress which built with the abundance of muds in the region that they learned from the local Bengalese fortress construction techniques. Soon, the imperial naval strategy focusing the mobilities of the ships which tracks were defended by those river forts.[16] Grand vizier Mir Jumla also constructing land-based defensensive installations put on those floating river forts, which constructed by lashing ships, and large rafts to enable the Mughal soldiers to fight on water.[231] Heavy artillery pieces brought on board rafts to supplement the existing ones, while wagons lashed to decks and stacks of crates and bales of straw or cotton formed makeshift fortification.[231]
The foundation of salt water naval force of the Mughal empire were established by Akbar from the late 16th century after he conquered Bengal and Gujarat.[246] Emperor Akbar reorganized the imperial navy from a collections of civilian vessels with more professional institutions of Naval administration which is detailed in the Ain-i-Akbari, the annals of Akbar's reign.It identifies the navy's primary objectives including the maintenance of transport and combat vessels, the retention of skilled seamen, protection of civilian commerce and the enforcement of tolls and tariffs.[246] Akbar were recorded in A'in Mir Bahri, to be possessed 3000 armed vessels, although later decreased into 768.[234] In early 1600, the Mughals employed Bengali local warriors as their naval force.[155]: 165 [231] these Nawwara is a Bengal local warlords.[247] These locals were consisted of the twelve chiefs of Baro-Bhuyan military confederacy, where they responsible for the shipbuildings, commercial trades, slave raidings, and military protections.[155]: 165 The Mughals assign these local warlords in naval position and also uncultivated lands for them.[155]: 165 [231]
About 20 years after the
Empress Mariam-uz-Zamani maintained large fleets of trade ships including the Rahīmī and Ganj-i-Sawai.[251][252] The Rahimi was the largest of the Indian ships trading in the Red Sea.[152] It had a sail vast areas that it was identifiable to sailors from miles away and was known to Europeans as, the great pilgrimage ship. [253] After being sacked by pirates, this ship was replaced by the Ganj-i-Sawa. This ship was eventully scaked by English Pirate Henry Every.[254]
One of the best-documented naval campaign of the Mughal empire were provided during the
It is said in the Ahkam 'Alamgiri record that the commander of British navy, Sir John Child, has concluded peace with the Mughal empire in 1689 due to his fear towards the "Mughal navy" force of Janjira which let by Siddi Yaqub.[238] According to Grant Duff, until 1670 the imperial navy under the leadership of Khan Jahan with the Janjira mariners has clashed frequently against Maratha Navy under Shivaji, where the Janjira and Mughal naval forces always comes victorious.[259] English letters In 1672 has recorded that Aurangzeb has sent 30 small frigates to assist the Siddis in Danda-Rajapuri.[260]: 196 The resulting battle has caused Shivaji naval forces to be burned and lost 50 ships.[260]: 196 Meanwhile, Khafi Khan has recorded that previously, once the fleet of Mughal during the era of Shah Jahan once inflicted heavy losses to the Maratha naval forces and causing 200 being captured while 100 casualties, an event which fuelled the rivalry of the Siddis with the Maratha in the sea.[260]: 196
During the era Aurangzeb, the chronicle of Ahkam 'Alamgiri, reveals how the Mughal empire has struggled to establish strong navy, boldened by the failure to prevent losses of Muslim vessels off the coast of the Maldives islands. Aurangzeb were said to possess four huge vessels at Surat and port of southern Gujarat.[234] Aurangzeb's Vizier, Jafar Khan, blames the Mughal lack of ability to establish an effective navy not due to lack of resources and money, but to the lack of men to direct (the vessels).[238] Thus Syed Hassan Askari concluded that the lack of priority of Aurangzeb to afford his naval project due to his conflicts against the Marathas has hindered him to do so.[238] Andrew de la Garza stated other reason of the Mughal navy did not evolve into a high seas fleet during the 17th century was technological inferiority of Indian blast furnaces in comparation with the European counterparts, who capable of generating the temperatures required to manufacture cast iron cannon in quantity.[246] Nevertheless, Syed maintained that Mughal was largely not independent to control the rampart piracy and European naval incursions, and instead resorted to depend on the strength of friendly Arab forces from Muscat to keep the Portuguese in check.[238]
However, Syed Hassan also highlighted that Aurangzeb are not completely neglect it since he has acquired the British expertise to strengthen the fort of
See also
- Tipu Sultan
- Sir John Child
- Yahya Saleh
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... Mughal emperor contained a great many persons . The only one of its kind , this elite mahallah served as the model ... walashahis ( belonging to the king ) or mansabdaran - i khassa ( special officeholders ) , were found in the emperor's ...
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...Mughal historiographical tradition has depicted the encampment as an example of its central Asian legacy, and a source of dynastic legitimacy as the descendants of conquest empires. In the court memoirs of emperors, such as the Baburnama, Humayunama, Akbarnama, and the Shah Jahanama, the authors made flexible narrative claims about their conquest histories and the ways of life that were conducive to massive land-based expansion. At the center of these narratives were references to the encampment as a site of military domination and troop mobility. The Mughal emperors relied upon the capacity to maneuver quickly and traced their command over mobile armies through lineages from Babur to Timur to Chinggis Khan. The camp called upon a firmly understood political tradition of mobility through its physical structure. ...In many historical accounts, Akbar's strategies to centralize authority to his figure coincided with the increasing permanence of the Mughal empire.19 Although these analyses rightfully point out Akbar's emphasis on establishing extensive administrative controls over his empire, this does not necessarily indicate a mutually exclusive relationship with early Mughal mobility. Akbar continued the long-standing traditions of his predecessors in marrying himself and his family into strategic political alliances.20 Whereas Timur married his children into the Chinggisid line, Akbar sought alliances with the Rajput rulers of Hindustan to solidify his control over the local kingdoms. He also created new revenue collection systems known as the khalisa, and installed a new mansab system to coordinate titles, rewards and iqtas (land allotments).21 Nevertheless, these centralizing policies also coincided with Akbar's continued use of the encampment to monitor the empire and address military-administrative pressures across his domain. Akbar expanded the camps of his predecessors in elaborate additions to Babur's highly mobile design. These changes were used by all subsequent Mughal rulers.22.... Akbar's entourage included small camps for journeys or hunting and large camps for royal tours and military campaigns, where over 300,000 people would reside.23 The emperor and his administration ruled the expanding Mughal empire from these camps.
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..elephants significance to Mughal leadership's right to rule, depicting how cultural symbols are co opted and repurposed and thus underscoring the dynamic nature of culture and power....In South Asia, elephants have been a symbol of power and reverence since the ancient Vedic times, as shown in the Arthashastra and Manusmriti
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(zamburak, shutarnal, shahin) that was attached to the saddle of the dromedary. These zamburaks were first mentioned by Bernier, who reports that Aurangzeb took two to three hundred camel- guns with him on his expedition to Kashmir
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musketeers were mostly recruited from certain Hindu tribes , such as the Bundelas , the Karnatakis , and the men of Buxar
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The Indian muslims looked down upon fighting with muskets and prided on sword play. The best gunners in the mughal army were hindus
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Akbar supposedly possessed 3000 vessels or boats. Later on, the amount was decreased to 768 armed cruisers ; (1618–1707) is said to have possessed four great vessels at Surat, the southern Gujarati port
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Rahimi , a 1,500 - ton
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- ^ Jadunath Sarkar (1985, p. 8, .... Nawwara ( Bengal war flotilla ))
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The Empress, Mariam Zamani then ordered the building of an even larger ship with 62 guns and placements for over 400 musket men. It was named Ganj-i-Sawai, and it was in its day the most fearsome ship on the seas, and its objective was to trade and take pilgrims to Mecca, and on the way back convert all the goods sold into gold and silver as well as bring the pilgrims back. But then the English, posing as pirates, attacked with a 25-ship armada of alleged pirates. At Mecca, they claimed they were slave traders.
- ^ "Harking back: The Empress and her two doomed pilgrim ships". 11 April 2021.
- ^ Findly, Ellison Banks. Nur Jahan Empress Of Mughal India. pp. 150–151.
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This article incorporates text from The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration, by William Irvine, a publication from 1903, now in the public domain in the United States.
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Further reading
- Edwardes, Stephen Meredyth; Garrett, Herbert Leonard Offley (1930). Mughal Rule in India.
- Sharma, S. R. (1940). Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material.
- Chandra, Satish (2001). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals. Vol. I. Har-Anand Publications. ISBN 978-81-241-0522-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7069-6385-4.
- Mehta, J. L. (2019). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 978-81-207-1015-3.