Muhammad III of Granada
Muhammad III | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasr | |||||
Born | 15 August 1257 Granada, Emirate of Granada | ||||
Died | 21 January 1314 Granada, Emirate of Granada | (aged 56)||||
Burial | Sabika Hill, Alhambra, Granada | ||||
| |||||
House | Nasrid dynasty | ||||
Father | Muhammad II | ||||
Religion | Islam |
Muhammad III (
Muhammad III inherited an ongoing war against
In contrast to the long reigns of his father and grandfather, Muhammad I, Muhammad III's reign was notably short; he was later known by the epithet al-Makhlu' ("the Deposed"). He was responsible for the construction of the Great Mosque of the Alhambra (later destroyed by Philip II in the sixteenth century) as well as the Partal Palace within the Alhambra. He also oversaw the construction of a nearby public bathhouse, the income from which paid for the mosque. He was known to have had a sense of humour and favoured poetry and literature. He composed his own poems, two of which survive today in Ibn al-Khatib's work Al-Lamha.
Background
Early life
Muhammad ibn Muhammad was born on 15 August 1257 (Wednesday 3 Shaban 655
When he still had good eyesight, the future Muhammad III habitually read well into the night.
Rule
Accession
Just before his death, Muhammad II oversaw a successful campaign against Castile, taking advantage of Castile's concurrent war against Aragon and the minority of the Castilian king,
Muhammad III took the throne at the age of around 45, when his father died on 8 April 1302 (8 Shaban 701 AH) after 29 years of rule.[1] There were allegations, cited by Ibn al-Khatib, that Muhammad III, perhaps impatient to assume power, killed his father by poison, although this rumour was never confirmed.[15][16][a] An anecdote says that during his accession ceremony, when a poet recited:
For whom are the banners today unfurled? For whom do the troops 'neath their standards march?
He responded with a joke: "For this fool you can see before you all."[17]
Peace with Castile and Aragon
Initially, Muhammad III continued his father's war against Castile, the alliance with Aragon and the Marinids, and support for
Muhammad III then started peace negotiations with Castile. In 1303, Castile sent a delegation led by the royal chancellor Fernando Gómez de Toledo to Granada. Castile offered to meet nearly all Granada's demands, including ceding Bedmar, Alcaudete, and Quesada. Tarifa, one of Granada's main goals, was to be kept by Castile. In exchange, Muhammad would agree to become Ferdinand's vassal and pay the parias (tribute), a typical peace arrangement between the two kingdoms.[22] The treaty was concluded at Córdoba in August 1303 and was to last three years.[18] In 1304, Aragon also concluded its war with Castile (by the Treaty of Torrellas) and assented to the Granada–Castile treaty, therefore creating peace between the three kingdoms, and leaving the Marinids isolated.[22]
The agreement, and the resulting alliance with Castile and Aragon, gave Granada peace and a dominant position in the Straits of Gibraltar. However, it created its own problems. Domestically, many were not happy with the alliance with the Christians, especially the Volunteers of the Faith, a military group who came from North Africa to Granada to fight a holy war.[22] Muhammad III subsequently dismissed 6,000 of his North African troops.[16] The Marinid state was offended by the tripartite alliance isolating it.[25] Aragon, while part of the alliance, was worried that strong Castile-Granada relations would mean the bloc could establish a choke-hold on the Strait and devastate Aragonese trade. The Aragonese king James II sent an envoy, Bernat de Sarrià to the Marinid Sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf, for negotiations—although ultimately these were unsuccessful.[26]
The conquest of Ceuta and its repercussions
Taking advantage of the peace with the Christian powers, Granada attempted an expansion to
Abu Thabit retook Ksar es-Seghir and Asilah from Granada and
Rise of Ibn al-Hakim
During Muhammad III's reign, his Vizier Abu Abdallah ibn al-Hakim al-Rundi grew in power and eventually became the most powerful man in the realm, eclipsing the Sultan himself. It is unclear exactly when or how he assumed absolute power, but it was due partly to the Sultan's blindness (or poor eyesight)[b] that excluded him from many of his duties.[1][25][33] Originally from Ronda and descended from a branch of the former Abbadid dynasty, he had entered the court as a katib (secretary) in 1287 during the reign of Muhammad II and then had risen to the highest rank in the chancery.[34][35] Muhammad III kept his services and appointed him as the co-vizier serving with Al-Dani, his father's vizier.[36] The old Vizier wanted the Atiq ibn al-Mawl, a qa'id (military chief) whose family was related to the Nasrids, to succeed him as the sole vizier on his death.[1][36] However, after Al-Dani's death in 1303, Muhammad III named Ibn al-Hakim as vizier anyway. Because he controlled the two powerful posts of vizier and katib, he received the title dhu al-wizaratayn ("holder of the two vizierates").[36] He was the one who signed the 1303 treaty with Castile at Córdoba in the name of Muhammad III, and the one who visited Ceuta after its conquest by Granada instead of the Sultan.[37] As his power grew, the court poets began to dedicate their verses to him rather than the Sultan, and he lived a luxurious lifestyle in his palace.[38]
Coalition against Granada
Despite efforts to allay its fears by the Granadan Vizier Al-Dani, Aragon continued diplomatic efforts against Granada.
The three powers—"a devastating line-up of enemies", according to historian
Ousting and later life
With Granada's three neighbours arrayed against it, Muhammad III became highly unpopular at home. On 14 March 1309 (on
There was an attempt by the royal council of Granada to restore Muhammad III during Nasr's reign, taking place on November 1310 when Nasr was gravely ill.[1] They urgently transported the old and blind Muhammad III from Almuñécar in a litter to court.[1] However, when he arrived, Nasr had recovered, and the attempt to restore him failed.[1] Muhammad III was then imprisoned in the Dar al-Kubra (La Casa Mayor, "Big House") of the Alhambra and was rumoured to have been killed.[1][46] The rumour of his assassination was one of the factors behind the rebellion led by Abu Said Faraj and his son Ismail, which eventually resulted in Nasr himself being deposed and Ismail taking the throne as Ismail I in 1314.[47] While Nasr was dealing with Ismail's rebellion, another rebellion occurred in December 1313 or January 1314 in Granada to restore Muhammad III. According to historian Francisco Vidal Castro, this likely caused Nasr to murder his brother—either to end the rebellion or as punishment, after it was over. Muhammad III was murdered by drowning in a pool of the Dar al-Kubra on 21 January 1314 (Monday, 3 Shawwal 713 AH).[1] He was buried on the Sabika Hill of the Alhambra alongside his grandfather Muhammad I.[48]
Personality
Ibn al-Khatib, who wrote histories and poetry in the mid-fourteenth century, considered Muhammad III to have been ruled by conflicting impulses.[49] Ibn al-Khatib told a story he had heard about Muhammad III's irrational cruelty: at the start of his reign, he imprisoned his father's household troops and then refused to feed them. This continued until some of the prisoners had to eat their dead colleagues. When a guard gave them leftover food out of compassion, Muhammad executed him so that the blood flowed into the prisoners' cells. An unconfirmed allegation mentioned by Ibn al-Khatib said that he murdered his father.[16][49] In addition to the cruelty, he was known to be a cultured man[50] and like many monarchs of Al-Andalus, he particularly loved poetry. One qasida composed by him is presented in full in Ibn al-Khatib's Al-Lamha.[51]
She made me a promise and broke it;
how little loyalty women have!
She reneged from her pledge and did not keep it;
she wouldn't have broken it if it had been fair!
How come she shows no sympathy
for an ardent lover who never stops inviting her affection,
who seeks all the news about her
and contemplates the lightning when it flashes?
I hid my ailment from the eyes of men,
but my love became clear after having been hidden.
Oh, how many nights I spent drinking
the wine of those lovely lips!
[Now] I've been denied her company,
without breaking a pledge, which I fear she has broken.[52][53]
He was also known for his sense of humour, including making a self-deprecating humorous response to a poem recited during the solemn ceremony of his ascension.[54][55]
Governance and legacy
Due to his blindness, he was often absent from matters of state, contributing to the absolute power later held by Vizier Ibn al-Hakim.[1] Other than Ibn al-Hakim, his leading officials included Abu Sultan Aziz ibn al-Mun'im al-Dani (co-vizier until he died in 1303),[56] Hammu ibn Abd al-Haqq (Chief of the Volunteers of the Faith),[20] and Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula (Commander of the Volunteers in Málaga). His brother-in-law and cousin-uncle Abu Said Faraj served as the governor of Málaga.[46] In the judiciary, after the death of his father's chief judge (qadi al jama'a) Muhammad ibn Hisham in 1304 or 1305, he appointed Abu Ja'far Ahmad al-Qurashi, also known as Ibn Farkun.[57] The second highest judicial post, qadi al-manakih ("judge of marriages"), was held by the North African Muhammad ibn Rushayd,[58] who also served as the imam and khatib of Granada's great mosque.[59]
Muhammad III ordered the construction of the great mosque (al-masjid al-a'ẓam) of the Alhambra, the Nasrids' royal palace and fortress complex. Muslim sources described the elegance of this mosque, which does not survive today as Philip II replaced it with the Church of St. Mary of the Alhambra in 1576.[1][60] He decorated it with columns and lamps, and granted the mosque a perpetual income (waqf) from the rents of the public bathhouse which he built nearby.[1][61] He was also associated with other buildings in the Alhambra, including the Partal Palace.[1]
In contrast to Muhammad I and II, who enjoyed long and stable reigns, Muhammad III was deposed after seven years. Historians gave him the epithet al-Makhlu' ("the deposed"), which was exclusively identified with him even though many of his successors were also deposed.[62]
His successor and half-brother Nasr inherited the war against the tripartite alliance of the Marinids, Castile, and Aragon. Aragon was
The downfall of Muhammad III and Nasr, and their deaths without an heir, also meant an end to the male line of descent from Muhammad I, the dynasty's founder. Ismail I and the subsequent sultans descended from Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad II and her husband Abu Said Faraj, a Nasrid from another branch (a nephew of Muhammad I).
Notes
- ^ Harvey 1992, p. 163, citing Ibn al-Khatib: "A story was put about that [Muhammad II] had been poisoned by a sweetmeat administered by his heir." Kennedy 2014, p. 285: "It was alleged that [Muhammad III] had in fact poisoned his father."
- ^ Sources vary on describing the degree of his blindness or poor vision. Harvey 1992, p. 166 simply says "defective eyesight", Vidal Castro writes that he was "casi ciego" (almost blind), Rubiera Mata 1969, p. 111 says that "... se quedó ciego" (he became blind), and Fernández-Puertas 1997, p. 4 refers to him as "the ... blind Muhammad III". Historical sources, such as Harvey 1992, p. 166 and Vidal Castro mention his night-time reading habit as a possible cause of his eyesight problem. The latter also proposed a genetic factor, as his father was known to have a sight problem.
References
Citation
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Vidal Castro.
- ^ Latham & Fernández-Puertas 1993, p. 1020.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 9, 40.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 160, 165.
- ^ O'Callaghan 2013, p. 456.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 26–28.
- ^ a b c Boloix Gallardo 2017, p. 166.
- ^ a b c Rubiera Mata 1996, p. 184.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Catlos 2018, p. 343.
- ^ Rubiera Mata 1969, pp. 108–109, note 5.
- ^ Rubiera Mata 1969, p. 108.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 162–163.
- ^ a b Harvey 1992, p. 163.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 163, 166.
- ^ a b c Kennedy 2014, p. 285.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 165–166.
- ^ a b c O'Callaghan 2011, p. 118.
- ^ Arié 1973, pp. 84–85.
- ^ a b Arié 1973, p. 84.
- ^ Arié 1973, p. 85 note 2.
- ^ a b c d Harvey 1992, p. 167.
- ^ Arié 1973, p. 85.
- ^ a b Arié 1973, p. 89.
- ^ a b Harvey 1992, p. 170.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 167–168.
- ^ a b c d e f g O'Callaghan 2011, p. 121.
- ^ Carrasco Manchado 2009, p. 401.
- ^ a b Harvey 1992, p. 169.
- ^ a b c d Arié 1973, p. 87.
- ^ Arié 1973, pp. 87–88.
- ^ a b O'Callaghan 2011, p. 122.
- ^ Rubiera Mata 1969, p. 111.
- ^ Rubiera Mata 1969, pp. 107–108.
- ^ Carrasco Manchado 2009, p. 439.
- ^ a b c Rubiera Mata 1969, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Rubiera Mata 1969, pp. 111–112.
- ^ a b Rubiera Mata 1969, p. 114.
- ^ a b Harvey 1992, p. 168.
- ^ a b c O'Callaghan 2011, p. 127.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 169–170.
- ^ O'Callaghan 2011, pp. 123–124.
- ^ O'Callaghan 2011, p. 124.
- ^ Arié 1973, pp. 88–89.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 169–170, 189.
- ^ a b Fernández-Puertas 1997, p. 4.
- ^ Fernández-Puertas 1997, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Arié 1973, pp. 197–198.
- ^ a b Harvey 1992, p. 166.
- ^ Rubiera Mata 1996, p. 186: ... sube al trono su hermano uterino, Muhammad III, el príncipe tan culto como cruel, que se quedó ciego leyendo por las noches."
- ^ Arié 1973, p. 451: A l'instar de leurs prédécesseurs, les Umayyades de Cordoue et les Mulūk al-Ṭawāʾif, les monarques naṣrides favorisèrent les poetes. Muḥammad II etair bon versificateur, aux dires d'Ibn al-Ḫatīb. Lisān al-dīn a reproduit intégralement une qaṣīda composée par Muhammad III. [followed by a footnote to Lamha, p. 49]. The full citation is given in Arié 1973, p. 15: al-Lamḥa al-badrīyya fī l-dawlah al-Naṣrīyya, éd. Muḥibb al-din al-Ḫatīb, Le Caire 1347 AH
- ^ Ibn al-Khaṭīb 1347 AH, p. 49:
:وقفت على مجموع منه ألَّفه بعض خُدّامه. فمن بعض المطولات
واعدني وعداًء وقد أخلفا أقل شيء في الملاح الوفا
وحال عن عهدي ولم يرعه ما ضرّه لو أنه أنصافا
ما بالها لم تتعطف على صبّ لها ما زال مستعطفا
يستطلع الأنباء من نحوها ويرقب البرق إذا ما هفا
خفيت سقماً عن عيان الورى وبان حبي بعد ما قدخفى
لله كم من ليلة بتُّها أُدير من ذاك اللمى قرقفا
منعتني بالوصل منها وما أخلفت عهداً خفتُ أن يخلفا
:ومنها
[another poem follows] - ^ Ibn al-Khaṭīb 2010, pp. 157–158:
Me hizo una promesa y faltó a ella: ¡qué mezquina es la lealtad de las mujeres!
Se desligo de mi pacto y no lo guardó: ¡no lo hubiera roto si hubiera sido justa!
[the rest of the copyrighted translation omitted from this quote] - ^ Vidal Castro: Además, hizo gala de buen sentido del humor hasta el punto de reírse de sí mismo, como hizo en la solemne ceremonia de su ascenso al trono, cuando un poeta le recitó en su honor una poesía que empezaba ...
- ^ Rubiera Mata 1969, pp. 109–110: no le impiden bromear sobre sí mismo, el día que se celebra su subida a trono. En tal ocasión, un poeta recita: ...
- ^ Rubiera Mata 1969, p. 110.
- ^ Arié 1973, pp. 279–280.
- ^ Arié 1973, p. 281.
- ^ Arié 1971, p. 909.
- ^ Arié 1973, p. 463, also note 4.
- ^ Arié 1973, p. 463.
- ^ Harvey 1992, p. 165.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 171–172.
- ^ Harvey 1992, pp. 179–180.
- ^ Fernández-Puertas 1997, p. 6.
- ^ Fernández-Puertas 1997, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Harvey 1992, p. 20.
Bibliography
- OCLC 495469525.
- OCLC 3207329.
- Boloix Gallardo, Bárbara (2017). Ibn al-Aḥmar: vida y reinado del primer sultán de Granada (1195–1273) (in Spanish). Granada: Editorial Universidad de Granada. ISBN 978-84-338-6079-8.
- Carrasco Manchado, Ana I. (2009). "Al-Andalus Nazarí". Al-Andalus. Historia de España VI (in Spanish). Madrid: Ediciones Istmo. pp. 391–485. ISBN 978-84-7090-431-8.
- Catlos, Brian A. (2018). Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain. London: ISBN 978-17-8738-003-5.
- Fernández-Puertas, Antonio (1997). "The Three Great Sultans of al-Dawla al-Ismā'īliyya al-Naṣriyya Who Built the Fourteenth-Century Alhambra: Ismā'īl I, Yūsuf I, Muḥammad V (713–793/1314–1391)". S2CID 154717811.
- ISBN 978-0-226-31962-9.
- ISBN 978-1-317-87041-8.
- Latham, John Derek & Fernández-Puertas, Antonio (1993). "Nasrids". In ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2.
- O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812204636.
- O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (2013). A History of Medieval Spain. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-6872-8.
- Rubiera Mata, María Jesús (1969). "El Du l-Wizaratayn Ibn al-Hakim de Ronda" (PDF). Al-Andalus (in Spanish). 34. Madrid and Granada: Spanish National Research Council: 105–121.
- Rubiera Mata, María Jesús (1996). "La princesa Fátima Bint Al-Ahmar, la "María de Molina" de la dinastía Nazarí de Granada". Medievalismo (in Spanish). 6. Murcia and Madrid: Universidad de Murcia and Sociedad Española de Estudios Medievales: 183–189. (PDF) from the original on 13 July 2019.
- Vidal Castro, Francisco. "Muhammad III". In Real Academia de la Historia (ed.). Diccionario Biográfico electrónico (in Spanish).
Primary sources
- OCLC 77948896.
- Ibn al-Khaṭīb (2010). Historia de los reyes de la Alhambra: el resplandor de la luna llena acerca de la dinastía nazaría (in Spanish). Translated by Emilio Molina López. University of Granada. OCLC 719415854. Translated from Arabic (Ibn al-Khaṭīb 1347 AH).