Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab | ||
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محمد بن عبد الوهاب | ||
Title | ||
Died | 1792 | (aged 88–89) (1206 AH)|
Religion | Islam | |
Children | List
| |
Denomination | Arabic: كتاب التوحيد; "The Book of Monotheism")[6] | |
Relatives | Sulayman (brother) | |
Muslim leader | ||
Influenced by | ||
Influenced
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Epithet (Laqab) an-Najdī | | |
Toponymic (Nisba) | at-Tamīmī[11] |
Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaymān al-Tamīmī (
The label "Wahhabi" is not claimed by his followers but rather employed by Western scholars as well as his critics.
Being given religious training under various
Despite being opposed or rejected by some of his contemporary critics amongst the religious clergy,
Ancestry and early life
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is generally acknowledged to have been born in 1703
Early studies
Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's early education was taught by his father,
Travels
Pilgrimage to Mecca
After leaving 'Uyayna around the age of twenty, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab performed the
Tutelage under Al-Sindhi
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teacher, 'Abdallah ibn Ibrahim ibn Sayf, introduced the relatively young man to
Apart from his emphasis on hadith studies, aversion for the madhhab system and disregard for technical juristic discussions involving legal principles, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb's views on ziyārah (visitations to the shrines of Awliyaa) were also shaped by Al-Sindhi. Sindi encouraged his student to reject folk practices associated with graves and saints.[59] Various themes in Al-Sindi's writings, such as his opposition to erecting tombs and drawing human images, would be revived later by the Wahhabi movement.[60] Sindi instilled in Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab the belief that practices like beseeching the dead saints constituted apostasy and resembled the customs of the people of Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic era).[61] In a significant encounter between a young Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Al-Sindhi reported by the Najdi historian 'Uthman Ibn Bishr (d. 1288 A.H./ 1871/2 C.E.):
"... one day Shaykh Muḥammad [Ibn 'Abdi'l-Wahhāb] stood by the chamber of the Prophet where people were calling [upon him or supplicating] and seeking help by the Prophet's chamber, blessings and peace be upon him. He then saw Muḥammad Ḥayāt [al Sindī] and came to him. The shaykh [Ibn 'Abdi'l-Wahhāb] asked, "What do you say about them?" He [al-Sindī] said, "Verily that in which they are engaged shall be destroyed and their acts are invalid.""[62]
Journey to Basra
Following his early education in Medina, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab traveled outside of the
Return to 'Uyaynah
Early preaching
His leave from
As a gifted communicator with a talent for breaking down his ideas into shorter units, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab entitled his treatises with terms such as qawāʿid ("principles"), masāʾil ("matters"), kalimāt ("phrases"), or uṣūl ("foundations"), simplifying his texts point by point for mass reading.
These actions gained the attention of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of
The early Wahhabis had been protected by Ibn Mu'ammar in 'Uyayna, despite being persecuted in other settlements. As soon as Ibn Mu'ammar disowned them, Wahhabis were subject to excommunication (Takfir); exposing themselves to loss of lives and property. This experience of suffering reminded them of the Mihna against Ahmad Ibn Hanbal and his followers, and shaped the collective Wahhabi memory. As late as 1749, the sharif of Mecca imprisoned those Wahhabis who went to Mecca to perform the Hajj (annual pilgrimage).[76]
Pact with Muhammad bin Saud
Upon his expulsion from 'Uyayna, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring Diriyah by its ruler Muhammad ibn Saud Al Muqrin. After some time in Diriyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded his second and more successful agreement with a ruler.[77] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud agreed that, together, they would bring the Arabs of the peninsula back to the "true" principles of Islam as they saw it. According to the anonymous author of Lam al-Shihab (Brilliance of the Meteor), when they first met, Ibn Saud declared:
"This oasis is yours, do not fear your enemies. By the name of God, if all Nejd was summoned to throw you out, we will never agree to expel you."[78]
Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab replied:
"You are the settlement's chief and wise man. I want you to grant me an oath that you will perform jihad against the unbelievers. In return, you will be imam, leader of the Muslim community and I will be leader in religious matters."[78]
The agreement was confirmed with a mutual oath of loyalty (bay'ah) in 1744.[79] Once Al-Sa'ud made Dir'iyya a safe haven, Wahhabis from other towns took refuge. These included dissenters from Ibn Mu'ammar clan who had sworn allegiance to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. The nucleus of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's supporters all across Najd retreated to Dir'iyyah and formed the vanguard of the insurgency launched by Al-Saud against other towns.[80]
From a person who started his career as a lone activist, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would become the spiritual guide of the
Rise of Emirate of Dir'iyyah
The 1744 pact between Muhammad ibn Saud and Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab marked the rise of the
War with Riyadh (1746–1773)
Realising the significance of efficient religious preaching (da'wa), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab called upon his students to master the path of reasoning and proselytising over warfare to convince other Muslims of their reformist endeavour.[91] Between 1744 and 1746, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's preaching continued in the same non-violent manner as before and spread widely across the people of Najd. Rulers of various towns across Najd pledged their allegiance to Ibn Suʿūd. This situation changed drastically around 1158/1746; when the powerful anti-Wahhabi chieftain of Riyadh, Dahhām ibn Dawwās (fl. 1187/1773), attacked the town of Manfuha which had pledged allegiance to Diriyah. This would spark a nearly 30-year long between Diriyah and Riyadh, which lasted until 1187/1773, barring some interruptions.[92] First conquering Najd, Muhammad ibn Saud's forces expanded the Wahhabi influence to most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,[33] eradicating various popular practices they viewed as akin to polytheism and propagating the doctrines of ʿAbd al-Wahhab.[33][93]
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb maintained that the military campaigns of the Emirate of Dirʿiyya were strictly defensive and rebuked his opponents as being the first to initiate Takfir (excommunication).[94] Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had defined jihad as an activity that must have a valid religious justification and which can only be declared by an Imam whose purpose must be strictly defensive in nature.[95] Justifying the Wahhabi military campaigns as defensive operations against their enemies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts:
"As for warfare, until today, we did not fight anyone, except in defense of our lives and honor. They came to us in our area and did not spare any effort in fighting us. We only initiated fighting against some of them in retaliation for their continued aggression, [The recompense for an evil is an evil like thereof] (42:40)... they are the ones who started declaring us to be unbelievers and fighting us"[96][97]
Rebellion in Huraymila (1752–1755)
In 1753–4, the Wahhabis were confronted by an alarming number of towns renouncing allegiance and aligning with their opponents. Most prominent amongst these was the town of Huraymila, which had pledged allegiance to Dir'iyah in 1747. However, by 1752, a group of rebels encouraged by Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's brother, Sulaymān, had initiated a coup in Huraymila and installed a new ruler that threatened to topple the Wahhābī order. A fierce war between Diriyah and Huraymila began in a magnitude that was unprecedented. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab held a convocation of Wahhabis from all the settlements across Najd. Reviewing the recent desertions and defeats, he encouraged them to hold fast to their faith and recommit to the struggle.[98][99]
The ensuing battles and the re-capture of Huraymila in 1168/1755, constituted a significant development in Wahhabi expansionist stage. Abd al-Azeez, the son of Muhammad ibn Saud, had emerged as the principal leader of the Wahhabi military operations. Alongside a force of 800 men, accompanied by an additional 200 under the command of the deposed ruler of Huraymila, Abd al Azeez was able to subdue the rebels. More significantly, the rationale behind the campaign was based on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's newly written epistle Mufīd al-mustafīd, which marked a shift from the earlier posture of defensive Jihad to justify a more aggressive one. In the treatise, compiled to justify Jihad pursued by Dir'iyyah and its allies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab excommunicated the inhabitants of Huraymila and declared it as a duty of Wahhabi soldiers to fight them as apostates. He also quoted several Qur'anic verses indicative of offensive forms of jihād.[100]
Capture of Riyadh and Retirement (1773)
The last point of serious threat to the Saudi state was in 1764-1765. During this period, the Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa of Najrān alongside their allied tribe of 'Ujman, combined forces to inflict a major defeat on the Saudis at the Battle of Hair in October 1764, killing around 500 men. The anti-Wahhabi forces allied with the invaders and participated in the combined siege of Dirʿiyya. However, the defenders were able to hold onto their town due to the unexpected departure of the Najranis after a truce concluded with the Saudis. A decade later in 1773-'4, 'Abd al-Azeez had conquered Riyadh and secured the entirety of al-ʿĀriḍ, after its chieftain Dahham ibn Dawwas fled. By 1776/7, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab had surrendered. The capture of Riyadh marked the point at which Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab delegated all affairs of governing to 'Abd al-Azeez, withdrew from public life and devoted himself to teaching, preaching and worshipping. Meanwhile, 'Abd al-Azeez would proceed with his military campaigns, conquering towns like Sudayr (1196/1781), al-Kharj (1199/1784), etc. Opposition in towns to the North like al-Qaṣīm was stamped out by 1196/1781, and the rebels in ʿUnayza were subdued by 1202/1787. Further north, the town of Ḥāʾil, was captured in 1201/1786 and by the 1780s; Wahhābīs were able to establish their jurisdiction over most of Najd.[101][102][103]
Death
After his departure from public affairs, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would remain a consultant to 'Abd al-Azeez, who followed his recommendations. However, he withdrew from any active military and political activities of the Emirate of Diriyah and devoted himself to educational endeavours, preaching, and worship. His last major activity in state affairs was in 1202/1787; when he called on the people to give bay'ah (allegiance) to Suʿūd, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz's son, as heir apparent.
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fell ill and died in June 1792 C.E or 1206 A.H in the lunar month of
A clear separation of roles between the
Family
According to academic publications such as the
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also had a daughter named Fatimah, who was a revered
The descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, the
Views
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On Tawhid
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab sought to
The "core" of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching is found in Kitāb at-Tawḥīd, a theological treatise which draws from material in the Qur'an and the recorded doings and sayings of the
According to David Commins, various Muslims throughout history had held the view that declaring the testimony of faith is sufficient in becoming a Muslim.[125] Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab did not agree with this. He asserted that an individual who believed in the existence of intercessors or intermediaries alongside God was guilty of shirk (polytheism or idolatry). This was the major difference between him and his opponents,[126] and led him to label his adversaries who engaged in folk rituals associated with such beliefs to be apostates (a practice known in Islamic jurisprudence as takfir) and idolaters (mushrikin).[127]
Another major doctrine of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was the concept known as Al-'Udhr bil Jahl (excuse of ignorance), wherein any ignorant person unaware of core Islamic teachings is excused by default until clarification. As per this doctrine, those who fell into beliefs of shirk (polytheism) or "What has been mentioned to you about me, that I make generalised takfīr, this is from the slanders of the enemies.. [Rather] we make takfīr of the one who affirms the religion of Allāh and His Messenger but then showed enmity towards it and hindered people from it; as well as the one who worshipped idols after he came to know that this is the religion of the polytheists and beautified it for the people [inviting them to it].. [In fact] every scholar on the face of the Earth makes takfīr of them, save an obstinate or ignorant... But we [only] make takfīr of the one who associates partners with Allāh in His sole right of worship (ilāhiyyah), after we have made clear to him the proof for the futility of shirk."[129] "I am a man of social standing in my village and the people respect my word. This led some chieftains to reject my call, because I called them to what contradicts the traditions they were raised to uphold.... the chieftains directed their criticism and enmity towards our enjoining Tawheed and forbidding Shirk... Among the false accusations they propagated, ... is the claim that I accuse all Muslims, except my followers, of being Kuffar (Unbelievers)... This is truly incredible. How can any sane person accept such accusations? Would a Muslim say these things? I declare that I renounce, before Allah, these statements that only a mad person would utter. In short, what I was accused of calling to, other than enjoining Tawheed and forbidding Shirk, is all false."[131]
Rejecting the allegations of his detractors who accused him of ex-communicating whoever didn't follow his doctrines, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab maintained that he only advocated orthodox Sunni doctrines.[130] In a letter addressed to the Iraqi scholar Abdul Rahman Al-Suwaidi who had sought clarification over the rumours spread against his mission, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab explains:
On Taqlid
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was highly critical of the practice of
Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab opposed partisanship to
On the nature of Nubuwwah (Prophethood)
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab elucidated his concept on the nature of
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab adhered to
Furthermore, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had given little importance to
Influence on Salafism
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement is known today as
The Salafiyya movement was not directly connected to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement in Najd.[148] According to professor Abdullah Saeed, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab should rather be considered as one of the "precursors" of the modern Salafiyya movement since he called for a return to the pristine purity of the early eras of Islam by adhering to the Qur'an and the Sunnah, rejection of the blind following (Taqlid) of earlier scholars and advocating for Ijtihad.[117] Scholars like Adam J. Silverstein consider Wahhabi movement as "the most influential expression of Salafism of the Islamist sort, both for its role in shaping (some might say: 'creating') modern Islamism, and for disseminating salafi ideas widely across the Muslim world."[144]
On Fiqh
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's approach to Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) was based on four major principles:[149][150]
- Prohibition on speaking about God without 'Ilm (knowledge)
- Ambiguous issues in Scriptures are a mercy to the community and is neither forbidden nor obligatory
- Obligation to abide by the clear evidences from Scriptures
- Rulings of halal (allowance) and haram (prohibition) are clear in the Scriptures and those issues which are unclear should be left as ambiguous
According to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, the clear meaning of authentic "The companions of the Messenger of God, may God bless him and grant him peace, differed on various issues without denunciation, so long as the text was not clear. It is upon the believer to place his concern and intent to know the command of God and His Messenger in those matters of disagreement, and to act accordingly whilst respecting the people of knowledge, and respect them, even if they erred, but he does not take them as lords besides God; This is the way of those who are blessed. As for those who throw away their speech and do not respect, then this is the path of those who have incurred God's wrath."[152]
Throughout his epsitles like Arbaʿ qawāʿid tadūruʾl-aḥkām ʿalayhā (Four rules on which rulings revolve), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fiercely attacked the prevalent Hanbali Fiqh opinions; with a broader view of re-orienting the Fiqh tradition. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab challenged the
On Islamic revival
As a young scholar in Medina, Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was profoundly influenced by the revivalist doctrines taught by his teachers Muhammad Hayyat ibn Ibrahim al-Sindhi and Abdullah Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Sayf. Much of the Wahhabi teachings such as opposition to saint-cults, radical denunciation of blind-following medieval commentaries, adherence to Scriptures and other revivalist thoughts came from Muhammad Hayyat. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's revivalist efforts were based on a strong belief in Tawhid (Oneness of Allah) and a firm adherence to the Sunnah. His reformative efforts left exemplary marks on contemporary Islamic scholarship. Viewing Blind adherence ( Taqlid ) as an obstacle to the progress of Muslims, he dedicated himself to educating the masses for them to be vanguards of Islam. According to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the degradation and lagging behind of Muslims was due to their neglect of the teachings of Islam, emphasizing that progress could be achieved only by firmly adhering to Islam. He also campaigned against popular Sufi practices associated with istigatha, myths and superstitions.[158][159]
On Sufism
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab praised Tasawwuf. He stated the popular saying: "From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid)".[160] He described Tasawwuf as "the science of the deeds of the heart, which is known as the science of Suluk", and considered it as an important branch of Islamic religious sciences.[161][162]
At the end of his treatise, Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's son
'Abd Allah Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab ends his treatise saying:We do not negate the way of the Sufis and the purification of the inner self from the vices of those sins connected to the heart and the limbs as long as the individual firmly adheres to the rules of Shari'ah and the correct and observed way. However, we will not take it on ourselves to allegorically interpret (ta'wil) his speech and his actions. We only place our reliance on, seek help from, beseech aid from and place our confidence in all our dealings in Allah Most High. He is enough for us, the best trustee, the best mawla and the best helper. May Allah send peace on our master Muhammad, his family and companions.
On social reforms
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab concerned himself with the social reformation of his people. As an 18th-century reformer, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al Wahhab called for the re-opening of
On women
The legal writings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab reflected a general concern of female welfare and justice. In line with this approach, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced the practice of instant
In addition to these, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also defended married women's right to maintenance from her husband; as well as bride's right to receive mahr from her groom. He also strongly campaigned against domestic abuses against women, enjoining men to treat their wives with kindness.[171]
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab believed in social participation of women for communal solidarity; as per Islamic codes of modesty (
On Jihad
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb defined jihad as an activity that must have a valid religious justification and which can only be declared by an Imam whose purpose must be strictly defensive in nature.[174] He viewed the military campaigns of the Emirate of Dirʿiyya as strictly defensive operations against aggressive opponents who initiated Takfir against his followers.[175] Justifying the Wahhabi military campaigns as primarily defensive operations, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts:
"As for warfare, until today, we did not fight anyone, except in defense of our lives and honor. They came to us in our area and did not spare any effort in fighting us. We only initiated fighting against some of them in retaliation for their continued aggression, [The recompense for an evil is an evil like thereof] (42:40)... they are the ones who started declaring us to be unbelievers and fighting us"[175][176]
On Muslim saints
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab strongly condemned the veneration of
On non-Muslims
According to the
However, Western scholar Natana J. DeLong-Bas defended the position of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, stating that:
despite his at times vehement denunciations of other religious groups for their supposedly heretical beliefs, Ibn Abd al Wahhab never called for their destruction or death ... he assumed that these people would be punished in the Afterlife ..."[182]
Reception
By contemporaries
The doctrines of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab were criticized by a number of
On the other hand, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb and his supporters held that they were the victims of aggressive warfare; accusing their opponents of starting the pronouncements of Takfir (excommunication) and maintained that the military operations of Emirate of Dirʿiyya were strictly defensive. The memory of the unprovoked military offensive launched by Dahhām ibn Dawwās (fl. 1187/1773), the powerful chieftain of Riyadh, on Diriyya in 1746 was deeply engrained in the Wahhabi tradition.[184][185] Early Wahhabi chronicler Ibn Ghannām states in his book Tarikh an-Najd (History of Najd) that Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb did not order the use of violence until his enemies excommunicated him and deemed his blood licit:
"He gave no order to spill blood or to fight against the majority of the heretics and the misguided until they started ruling that he and his followers were to be killed and excommunicated."
By 1802, the
Ibn Humayd's maternal lineage, Al-Turki, was of some local renown for its religious scholars, including two men who opposed the Wahhabi movement. One of them, named Ibn Muhammad, compared Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab with
Another Hanbali scholar whom Ibn Humayd portrays as a central figure in rejecting Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's doctrine was Ibn Fayruz Al-Tamimi al-Ahsai (1729/30 – 1801/02). Ibn Fayruz publicly repudiated Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings when he sent an envoy to him. Ibn Fayruz then wrote to Sultan Abdul Hamid I and requested Ottoman assistance to subjugate Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's followers, whom he referred to as the "seditious Kharijites" of Najd. The Wahhabis, in turn, came to view him as one of their worst enemies and an exemplar of idolatry.[192]
According to Ibn Humayd, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's father criticized his son for his unwillingness to specialize in jurisprudence and disagreed with his doctrine and declared that he would be the cause of wickedness.[193] Similarly his brother, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab, wrote one of the first treatises refuting the Wahhabi doctrine,[194][142][193] The Divine Thunderbolts in Refutation of Wahhabism (Al-Šawā'iq Al-Ilāhiyya fī Al-radd 'alā Al-Wahhābiyya),[194][142] alleging that Muhammad was ill-educated and intolerant, and classing his views as fringe and fanatical.[183][194] Sulayman's first anti-Wahhabi treatise was followed by a second book, The Unmistakable Judgment in the Refutation of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab (Faṣl al-Ḫiṭāb fī Al-radd 'alā Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb).[194] Later Muwahhidun scholarly figures like Abdullah ibn Abd al-Latif Aal al-Shaykh (d. 1921 C.E) would respond to these accusations by asserting that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab refrained from making Takfir:
" Shaykh Muhammad (May God have Mercy on him) never made takfeer of the people in the beginning; except via establishing the proofs and the da'wah, because at that time there was a dearth of knowledge of the message (of Islām) and for that reason he said 'due to their ignorance and the lack of anyone who makes them aware'. However, as for those on whom the proofs are established, then there is nothing to prevent takfeer being made on such people"[195]
Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was known to have had disagreements with both his father and his brother Sulayman.[7][17] [24][28] [194] Sulayman, his brother, disputed many of his doctrinal statements and was one of his staunch opponents during a certain time-period. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's father disagreed with his son's metholodolgy in implementing reforms.[196] According to historical records, Sulayman declared his repentance and started to support his brother during later life, after understanding the doctrines and objectives of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's revivalist movement.[197][198][199][200][201]
The 19th century anti-Wahhabi critic and historian
recorded the account of the dispute between Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his brother Sulayman, reporting that:Sulayman [ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab] once asked his brother Muhammad [ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab], "How many are the
pillars of Islam?" "Five," he answered. Sulayman replied, "No, you have added a sixth one: He who does not follow you is not a Muslim. This, to you, is the sixth pillar of Islam."[204]
According to various historical records, Sulayman repented and joined the religious mission of his brother.[205] However, there is a disagreement regarding his repentance. While earlier Najdi chroniclers like Ibn Ghannam reported he repented and embraced Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's cause in Diriyah, later historians like Ibn Bishr simply mentions his departure to Diriyah with his family and his last years under the protection of Diriyah, while being allowed by state-allotted stipend. A letter attributed to Sulayman also mentions his public repentance.[206]
The Ottoman
In response, the British Indian Ahl-i Hadith scholar Muhammad Bashir Sahsawani (1834-1908 C.E) wrote the treatise Sayaanah al-Insaan an Waswaswah al-Shaikh Dahlaan in order to refute Dahlan. Sahsawani asserted that after his correspondence with various scholars of the Muwahhidun movement and study of their creedal works; he came to the conclusion that the allegation that they excommunicated "non-Wahhabis" were false and slanderous.[212][213]
The Islamic scholar
Rashid Rida contended that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was a victim of persecution by the combined oppression of three forces: i) the power of state and its rulers ii) power of hypocritical scholars and iii) power of tyrannical commoners.[216] Fiercely rebuking his opponents, Rashid Rida declared:
"The best weapon they brandished against him was that he contradicted the majority of Muslims. Who were the majority of Muslims Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab contradicted in his Da'wah? They were Bedouins of the desert, worse than the people of Jahiliyyah, intent on looting and theft. They allowed shedding the blood of Muslims and non-Muslims, just to earn a living. They took their tyrants as judges in every matter and denied many aspects of Islam on which there is consensus [especially among scholars], matters in which no Muslim can claim ignorance."[216]
The
Moroccan military leader 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi (1882-1963 C.E) praised Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's reform endeavour as a "promising voice" that sparked spiritual and intellectual Awakening across the Islamic World.[223]
Prominent
Modern reception
Various academics have compared Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to the 15th-century
According to the 20th-century
"Just as in the West in the age of Renaissance, the Muslim world was stirred by a great awakening. Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab’s message of jihad and ijtihad inspired an unbroken movement... to push the umma towards jihad against its enemies, to abandon the guise of tradition (taqlid) and to unite its divisions around the mystical origins of Islam and Islamic thought."[230]
Islamic scholar Yusuf Al-Qārādawī praised Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab as a Mujaddid (religious reviver) of the Arabian Peninsula who defended the purity of Tawhid from various superstitions and polytheistic beliefs.[235] Praising Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's efforts, Muhammad Rashīd Ridá wrote:
"Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi was one of those Mujaddids, [who] called for the upholding of Tawhid and the sincerity of worship to God alone with what He legislated in His Book and on the tongue of His Messenger, the Seal of the Prophets; ... abandoning heresies and sins, establishing the abandoned rituals of Islam, and venerating its violated sanctities."[235]
In his book "Saviours of the Islamic Spirit", Islamic scholar
"I dare anyone to bring a single alphabetical letter from the Sheikh's books that goes against the book of Allah and the teachings of his prophet, Muhammad."
Western Reception
During the early 21st century Western security discourse, Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement, Wahhabism, was often associated with various
During the early years of
On the other hand, contemporary Western historians and researchers have taken a more nuanced approach on the history and evolution of the "
the development of the
Ibn Taymiyyafell foul of when for having similar views he was tortured and threatened with death.
— Oliver Leaman, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Kentucky[256]
Western scholars like Michael Ryan assert that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's reformist teachings were a rationalist enterprise that sought to eradicate superstitions widespread in the context of tribal rivalry within the Arabian Peninsula. Moreover, the regional background of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's intellectual efforts in the chaotic context of the 18th-century Arabian Peninsula had been distinct from the 21st century global Jihad ideology of organisations like Al-Qaeda or IS. Consequently, his scholarly heirs, including the prestigious Aal al-Shaykhs constitute the primary ideological nemesis of groups such as Al-Qaeda. Since the Saudi population overwhelmingly prefers their traditional religious institutions and scholars to Bin Laden's claims to revolutionary Jihadi-Salafism; Al-Qaeda harshly attacks these mainstream Saudi clerics with much rhetorical vitriol.[257]
Various scholars have also contested
Contemporary recognition
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's thoughts would greatly influence the
The
Works
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab has been described as a "prolific writer" whose scholarly treatises are collected into fourteen large volumes; which consists of various legal books, Qur'anic commentaries, creedal works, and compilation of fatwas.[270] Some of his major works include:
- Risālah Aslu Dīn Al-Islām wa Qā'idatuhu
- Kitab al-Quran (The book of Allah)
- Kitab at-Tawhid (The Book of the Oneness of God)
- Kashf ush-Shubuhaat (Clarification of the Doubts)
- Al-Usool-uth-Thalaatha (The Three Fundamental Principles)
- Al Qawaaid Al 'Arbaa (The Four Foundations)
- Al-Usool us Sittah (The Six Fundamental Principles)
- Nawaaqid al Islaam (Nullifiers of Islam)
- Adab al-Mashy Ila as-Salaa (Manners of Walking to the Prayer)
- Usul al-Iman (Foundations of Faith)
- Fada'il al-Islam (Excellent Virtues of Islam)
- Fada'il al-Qur'an (Excellent Virtues of the Qur'an)
- Majmu'a al-Hadith 'Ala Abwab al-Fiqh (Compendium of the Hadith on the Main Topics of the Fiqh)
- Mukhtasar al-Iman (Abridgement of the Faith; i.e. the summarised version of a work on Faith)
- Mukhtasar al-Insaf wa'l-Sharh al-Kabir (Abridgement of the Equity and the Great Explanation)
- Mukhtasar Seerat ar-Rasul (Summarised Biography of the Prophet)
- Kitaabu l-Kabaair (The Book of Great Sins)
- Kitabu l-Imaan (The Book of Trust)
- Al-Radd 'ala al-Rafida (The Refutation of the Rejectionists)
See also
- Ibn Taymiyyah
- Wahhabi Movement
- Emirate of Diriyah
- International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism
Sources
Two of the earliest sources for the biography of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and early history of the Wahhabi movement have been documented by its followers:
- Wahhabi chronicler and scholar Ibn Ghannam's Rawdhat al-Afkar wal-Afham or Tarikh Najd (History of Najd) and Husain ibn Ghannam (d. 1811), an alim from al-Hasa was the only historian to have observed the beginnings of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement first-hand. His chronicle ends at the year 1797.[271][272]
- Najdi Historian Ibn Bishr's Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd (The Glorious History of Najd). Ibn Bishr's chronicle, which stops at the year 1854, was written a generation later than Ibn Ghannam's but is considered valuable partly because Ibn Bishr was a native of Najd and because he adds many details to Ibn Ghannam's account.[271]
A third account, covering Arabian history between the 1730s to 1817 is Lam' al-Shihab (The Brilliance of the Meteor) written by an anonymous author who respectfully disapproved of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement, regarding it as a
It is also commonly cited in Orientalist circles because it is considered to be a relatively objective and unofficial treatment of the subject. However, unlike Ibn Ghannam and Ibn Bishr, its author did not live in Najd and his work contains various tales, apocryphal and legendary materials concerning the details of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life.[41][273]
References
Notes
- caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate.
Citations
- ^ "?Abd Al-Wahhab, Muhammad Ibn (1703-1792)". Encyclopedia.com. 29 December 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
- ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. New York: Oxford University Press. 2020. Archived from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
- AltaMira Press. pp. 469–70.
The Wahhabis are often said to 'belong' to the Hanbali School of Law (madhhab), but strictly speaking, like the Ahl al-Hadith ... they are ghayr muqallidun ('non-adherents'), and do not see themselves as belonging to any school, any more than the first Muslim generations did.
- ^ Halverson 2010, p. 48.
- ^ Brown 2009, pp. 245–47.
- ^ a b "Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb Muslim theologian". Britannica.com. 29 December 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f Brown 2009, p. 245.
- ^ Wagemakers 2021, p. 341.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Haykel 2013, pp. 231–32.
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- ^ "Sahih al-Bukhari 4366 - Military Expeditions led by the Prophet (pbuh) (Al-Maghaazi) - كتاب المغازى - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
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He was not a great intellectual like Ibn Qudama, Ibn Taymiyya, or Ibn al-Qayyim but rather an activist.
- ISBN 978-0-19-517632-2.
Muhammad ibn ῾Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792), was a scholar and Hanbali jurist who called for a return to the fundamental sources of Islamic revelation, the Qur᾽an and sunna (example of Muhammad) for direct interpretation, resulting in decreased attention to and reliance upon medieval interpretations of these sources
- ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 12 July 2016.
- ^ Sources:
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lbn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d.1791) Saudi fuabian conservative theologian, Hanbali jurist, reformer, and ideologue of the Wahhabi movement. Prodaimed the necessity of returning directly to the Quran and hadith, rather than relying on medieval interpretations.
- Richard Netton, Ian (2008). "IBN 'ABD AL-WAHHAB, MUHAMMAD (1703–92)". Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion. New York: Routledge. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-7007-1588-6.
- Schacht, J; Lewis, B; Pellat, C; Ménage, V.L., eds. (1986). "The Encyclopaedia of Islam". The Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition. Vol. III. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill. pp. 677–679. ISBN 90-04-08118-6.
- E. Campo, Juan (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Facts on File Inc. pp. 324–325. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1703–1791) conservative religious reformer who launched the Wahhabi movement.
- L. Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 123.
- ^ Sources:
- Haykel 2013, pp. 231–32
- Commins 2015, p. 151
- Silverstein 2010, pp. 112–13
- Bokhari & Senzai 2013, pp. 82–3
- ^ ISBN 978-9004161214.
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- ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies. Archived from the original on 12 July 2016.
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- ^ a b c d Esposito 2004, p. 123.
- ^ a b c d e Ágoston & Masters 2009, p. 260.
- ^ The Huffington Post. New York. Archivedfrom the original on 28 August 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
- ^ a b c Khatab 2011, pp. 56–76.
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- ^ Sources:
- Bokhari & Senzai 2013, pp. 82–3
- "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 12 July 2016.
Plans for socioreligious reform in society were based on the key doctrine of tawhid (oneness of God)
- J. Delong-Bass, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0195169913.
- ^ ISBN 90-04-11908-6.
- ^ JSTOR 1571420.
- ^ Hourani 1992: 257–58.
- ^ a b c d Nawaf E. Obaid (September 1999). "The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders". Middle East Quarterly. 6 (3). Middle East Forum: 51–58. Archived from the original on 6 August 2011. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
- ^ Bokhari & Senzai 2013, pp. 82–3.
- ^ a b Abir 1987: 4, 5, 7.
- ^ a b c d e Metz 1992
- ^ a b Philby 1930: 8.
- ^ Glassé 2003: 470.
- ^ ISBN 978-1134653195.
- ^ EI1: 1086.
- ^ Navalk Post Graduate School Thesis, September 2009, Michael R. Dillon: Wahhabism: Is it a factor in the spread of global terrorism?, p. 13 Archived 7 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Linked 3 March 2015.
- ^ a b ibn Ghannam: 75–76.
- ^ Hopwood 1972: 55.
- ^ a b EI2: 677–78.
- ^ Al-Ashʿarī, al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl al-diyāna, ed. Fawqiyya Ḥusayn Maḥmūd (Cairo: Dār al-Anṣār, 1397/1977), 31, 33: "It is possible for God to single out the righteous (ṣāliḥīn) by making signs (āyāt) appear at their hands".
- ^ Al-Ṭaḥāwī, Matn al-ʿaqīda al-ṭaḥāwiyya, ed. Muḥammad Nāṣir al-Dīn al-Albānī (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islāmī, 1398/1978), 59: "[W]e believe in what has come via sound transmission through trustworthy narrators (ṣaḥḥa ʿan al-thiqāt min ruwātihim) from among their [the saints'] miracles".
- ^ Ibn Qudamah, cited in Ahmet T. Karamustafa, Sufism: The Formative Period (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007, p. 132).
- ISBN 978-9004161214.
- ^ S2CID 247162037– via Brill.
- ^ Ajhar A. Hakim: "In Islamic history, Ibn Taymiyya holds an exceptionally high position as an intellect in regard to his theories" The Forgotten Rational Thinking in the Ḥanbalite Thought With Special Reference to Ibn Taymiyya Khalifa University of Science, Technology and Research, Sharjah, U.A.E p.152
- ^ Rebecca Skreslet Hernandez, The Legal Thought of Jalāl Al-Din Al-Suyūṭī: Authority and Legacy, p.133
- ^ Muhammad (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) said “Every innovation is going astray, and every going astray will be in the Fire.” Narrated by Muslim (867) an-Nasaa’i (1578)
- ^ Jalal Abualrub: "Ibn Taymiyya only followed Prophetic statements and statements of the Prophet's companions and Muslim imams that prohibit innovating in the religion." (September 2013). Biography and Mission of Muhammad Ibn AbdulWahhab p.31
- ^ Ibn Mas’ood said: “Follow (the Sunnah) and do not innovate, because you have been sufficed.” Ad-Darimi and he also said: “Practicing a little of the Sunnah is far better than practicing many innovations.” Al-Hakim
- ^ Taqi al-Din al-Hisni referred to Ibn Taymiyyah as a "heretic from Harran"; see Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 271.
- ^ John L. Esposito (ed.), The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press (2004), p. 296.
- ^ Islamic Law and Society. E.J. Brill. 2006. p. 216.
- ^ a b c Voll 1975: 32–39 "Scholars have described Muhammad Hayya as having an important influence on Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, encouraging him in his developing determination to denounce rigid imitation of medieval commentaries and to utilize informed individual analysis (ijtihad). Muhammad Hayya also taught Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab a rejection of popular religious practices associated with 'saints' and their tombs that is similar to later Wahhdbi teachings".
- ^ ibn 'Hajar: 17–19.
- ^ Official sources on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life put his visits to these cities in different chronological orders, and the full extent of such travels remains disputed among historians. As well, dates are missing in a great many cases, making it difficult to reconstruct a chronology of his life up until his return to 'Uyayna in 1740.
- JSTOR 40377907.
- .
- JSTOR 40377907.
Certain themes that Hayat al-Sindl discussed in his writings, such as his opposition to erecting tombs and drawing human images, would soon resurface in the teachings of Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Wahhab.
- ^ Cameron, Zargar (2017). "Origins of Wahhabism from Hanbali Fiqh". UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law. 16 (1). University of California: 97.
- ^ Cameron, Zargar (2017). "Origins of Wahhabism from Hanbali Fiqh". UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law. 16 (1). University of California: 96.
- ^ ibn Bishr: 7–8.
- ISBN 0195169913.
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab set out for Basra (located in modern Iraq), where he pursued additional studies in hadith and fiqh with an important scholar and madrasa (Islamic school) teacher, Muhammad al-Majmu'i... It is believed that Ibn Abd al-Wahhab came into contact with Shiis during this stay in Basra,... he specifically targeted only one particular extremist sect, the Rafidah, in only one treatise.
- ISBN 9780197669419.
- ^ – via Wiley Online Library.
- ISBN 90-04-08118-6.
- ISBN 0195169913.
- S2CID 251145936– via Brill.com.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 177.
- ISBN 9004113002.
- ISBN 978-0-300-17890-6.
- ^ Lacey 1983: 56.
- ^ a b Delong-Bas 2004, p. 24.
- ^ ibn 'Hajar: 28.
- ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ a b Delong-Bas 2004, p. 34.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-76128-4.
- ^ Ibnsaud.info 2008
- ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's formal output was limited. He was above all a preacher, teacher and activist.
- ISBN 0253334608.
- ISBN 978-0313344428. Archivedfrom the original on 4 May 2016.
- ISBN 978-1476608815. Archivedfrom the original on 28 May 2016.
- ^ Obaid 1999: 51–58.
- ^ Faksh 1997: 89–90.
- ^ Naghma (2015). Impact of the Ahl-e-Hadith Movement on Contemporary Muslim Society in India. Aligarh, India: Aligarh Muslim University. pp. 58, 71.
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- ^ ISBN 0-02-865603-2.
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- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. pp. 243–244.
- ^ EBO History of Arabia 2011
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 244.
- ISBN 0195169913.
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab described jihad as an activity that must always have a religious justification and can only be declared by the religious leader (imam) and whose intent and purpose must be strictly defensive in nature.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 244.
- ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 247.
- ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. pp. 247–249.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. pp. 249–250.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ISBN 0195169913.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 254.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. pp. 254–255.
- ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ EBO Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb 2011
- ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 8 June 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
- ^ S2CID 144357200.
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- ISBN 978-0-8156-3753-0.
- ^ Ottaway 2008: 176.
- ^ Nyrop 2008: 50.
- ^ Bligh 1985: 37–50.
- ^ Khatab 2011, pp. 65–67.
- ^ a b Saeed 2013, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Esposito 2003, p. 333
- ^ "Allah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
- ^ Saeed 2013, p. 29.
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- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B. Tauris. p. 12.
This brief essay is of tremendous significance for the Wahhabi mission and the subject of enduring controversy between supporters and detractors. It represents the core of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching and the foundation of the Wahhabi canon.
- ^ Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid
- ISBN 978-1845110802. Archivedfrom the original on 5 January 2020.
- ISBN 978-1845110802. Archivedfrom the original on 5 January 2020.
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab included in the category of such acts popular religious practices that made holy men into intercessors with God. That was the core of the controversy between him and his adversaries, including his brother.
- ISBN 978-1845110802. Archivedfrom the original on 5 January 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-032-19806-4.
- ^ ibn Abd al-Wahhab, 'Abd al-Aziz, Muhammad (1976). الرسالة التاسعة: رسالته إلى عامة المسلمين [Ninth Message: his Message to the Common Muslims]. In Bin Zaid Al-Roumi; Beltaji, Muhammad; Hijab, Sayyed (eds.). مؤلفات الشيخ الإمام محمد بن عبد الوهاب [Works of Shaykh and Imam Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab] (in Arabic). Vol. 7: Book of Personal Messages. Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University. pp. 58–60.
- ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
- – via Wiley Online Library.
(his criticism)... was also directed against the blind acceptance of religious authority (taqlid ) and by implication the 'ulama for confining independent reasoning (ijtihad ) and for their uncritical acceptance of medieval Islamic sources as the final authority on these questions. Instead, he maintained that final authoritative sources are those of the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet along with the precedents of the early Companions, who considered ijtihad as necessary for the continuous interpretation of Islamic law" ... "By upholding the absolute supremacy of the Qur'an and the early Sunnah, his intention was to undercut the authority of ijma, the consensus arrived at by the established 'ulama and extend the practice of independent reasoning [as against taqlid (traditionalism) ].
- ^ Farquhar, Michael (2013). Expanding the Wahhabi Mission: Saudi Arabia, the Islamic University of Medina and the Transnational Religious Economy. London: The London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 64.
..Muhammad Hayya al-Sindi in Medina influenced a shift on the part of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab towards criticism of taqlīd and many popular religious practices
- ^ ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad. "The Six Foundations" (PDF). Salafi Publications. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ "Guidelines for following Madhabs". Salafi Publications. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). "MANIFEST ENMITY: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)". Near Eastern Studies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University: 153–161.
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb employs this proof in pursuit of a more radical conclusion than the one reached by Ibn Taymiyya. He uses it to inveigh against the entire educational institution surrounding Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), which he takes as emblematic of the sad state of learning in Islam"... "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb considered the institution of fiqh as a kind of factory for the production of slavish emulators. The real task of a scholar, he argued, is to return to the texts of revelation, not to the opinions of men" ... "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb drew on both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim... Yet neither of them wrote off the entire field of jurisprudence as irredeemable, as Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb did"... "he describes his position with respect to scholarly authority as... ittibāʿ (following)
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-46674-6.
- ^ Moosa 2015, p. 97.
- ISBN 978-0804747684. Archivedfrom the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-9004161214.
- ^ a b c d e f g Commins 2015, p. 151.
- ^ a b c d e Silverstein 2010, pp. 112–13.
- ^ The National, March 18, 2010: There is no such thing as Wahhabism, Saudi prince says Archived 27 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Linked 3 March 2015.
- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. New York: I.B. Tauris. p. ix.
Thus, the mission's devotees contend that 'Wahhabism' is a misnomer for their efforts to revive correct Islamic belief and practice. Instead of the Wahhabi label, they prefer either salafi, one who follows the ways of the first Muslim ancestors (salaf), or muwahhid, one who professes God's unity.
- ^ Delong-Bas 2004, p. 4.
- ISBN 0-8108-3609-2.
AL-SALAFIYYA. .. It was not directly connected to the movement of Shaykh Muhammad Bin 'Abd al-Wahhab in Najd.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 40.
- ^ a b Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad. أربع قواعد تدور الأحكام عليها [Arbaʿ qawāʿid tadūruʾl-aḥkām ʿalayhā (Four rules on which rulings revolve)] (in Arabic). Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University. pp. 3–14.
- ISBN 90-04-110623.
- ^ Ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Asimi, 'Abdur-Rahman (1996). "في أصول مأخذهم" [Fi Usul Ma'khadahum (On the origins of their take)]. الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية [Al Durar al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwab al-Nakdiyya (Sunni Pearls in Najd Answers)] (in Arabic). Vol. 4. p. 10.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. pp. 40–41.
- ^ Ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Asimi, 'Abdur-Rahman (1996). "في أصول مأخذهم" [Fi Usul Ma'khadahum (On the origins of their take)]. الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية [Al Durar al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwab al-Nakdiyya (Sunni Pearls in Najd Answers)] (in Arabic). Vol. 4. pp. 57–60.
- ISBN 90-04-110623.
- ^ Ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Asimi, 'Abdur-Rahman (1996). "في أصول مأخذهم" [Fi Usul Ma'khadahum (On the origins of their take)]. الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية [Al Durar al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwab al-Nakdiyya ( Sunni Pearls in Najd Answers)] (in Arabic). Vol. 4. p. 11.
- ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
- S2CID 162450741.
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb came to Madina as a relatively young scholar and studied under Muhammad Hayyā al-Sindi.... Scholars have described Muhammad Hayyā as having an impor- tant influence on Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb, encouraging him in his developing determination to denounce rigid imitation of medieval commentaries and to utilize informed individual analysis (ijtihād). Muhammad Hayyà also taught Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb a rejection of popular religious practices associated with saints and their tombs that is similar to later Wahhābi teachings.
- ^ bin Ridha Murad, Mahmoud (2000). The Life & the Aqeedah of Muhammad Bin Abdul-Wahhab. pp. 17–20.
- ^ Hafiz Al-Makki, Mawlana Abd-Al (1 January 2011). "Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd Al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband Org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015.
From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid).
- ^ 'Abd al-Hafiz al-Makki, Mawlana (1 January 2011). "Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015.
- ^ "Kitab al Fiqh". Mu'allafat al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. Vol. 2. p. 4.
- ^ al-Makki, 'Abd al-Hafiz. "Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband.org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
- ^ Rida, Rashid (1925). Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah. Egypt: Al Manar Publishers. p. 50.
- ^ al-Makki, Mawlana 'Abd Al-Hafiz (1 January 2011). "Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015.
- ^ Rida, Rashid (1925). Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah. Egypt: Al-Manar Publishers. p. 50.
- ISBN 9960-29-500-1.
- ^ bin Ridha Murad, Mahmoud (2000). The Life & the Aqeedah of Muhammad Bin Abdul-Wahhab. p. 17.
- ISBN 0-02-865603-2.
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab called for the reopening of ijtihad (independent legal judgment) by qualified persons to reform Islam..
- ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
- ISBN 978-0-19-517632-2.
- ISBN 978-0-8156-3753-0.
- ISBN 978-0-86372-327-8.
- ^ Delong-Bas 2004, pp. 202–203, 241–242.
- ^ a b M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153–1351/1741–1932). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University. p. 244.
- ISBN 978-0985632694.
- ^ Masʻūd ʻĀlam Nadvī (1983). Mohammad Bin Abdul Wahhab, a Slandered Reformer (Muslims -- Biography -- Saudi Arabia, Wahhābīyah -- Biography -- Saudi Arabia). Translated by M. Rafiq Khan. Idaratul Buhoosil Islamia. p. 10. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
- ^ ISBN 0895261359.
- ^ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996) Chapter 24, particularly p. 97.
- ^ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, p. 83)
- ^ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, Chapter 9, p. 51)
- ^ Delong-Bas 2004, p. 61.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-06-118903-6.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 244.
- ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 244.
- ISBN 1-84511-080-3.
By 1802, the Ottomans were mounting a doctrinal campaign, sending official tracts refuting Wahhabi positions and likening them to the Kharijites of early Islamic times.
- ^ LCCN 2015050373.
- ISBN 1850437572.
- ISBN 1850437572.
- ^ ISBN 978-1850437574. Archivedfrom the original on 1 July 2020.
- ISBN 978-1850437574. Archivedfrom the original on 1 July 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-1850437574. Archivedfrom the original on 1 July 2020.
- ^ a b c d e Gaye 2021, p. 212.
- ^ ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim Al-Najdi, 'Abd al-Rahman, ed. (1996). الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية [Al-Durar Al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwabatil Najdiyya (Sunni Pearls from Najdi Answers)] (in Arabic). Vol. 10. Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University. pp. 434–435.
- ^ Khatab 2011, pp. 63–75.
- ^ "ص146 - أرشيف ملتقى أهل الحديث - سليمان بن عبد الوهاب تاب ورجع فهل راجعون - المكتبة الشاملة الحديثة". al-maktaba.org. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
- ^ "Rattibha". en.rattibha.com. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
- ^ "الشيخ سليمان بن عبدالوهاب تاب ورجع، فهل أنتم راجعون؟ (1 /2)". www.alukah.net (in Arabic). 28 October 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
- ^ الشيخ صالح الفوزان : توبة الشيخ سليمان بن عبد الوهاب من ذم دعوة أخيه الإمام المجدد محمد, retrieved 4 October 2023
- ISBN 1845110803.
- ISBN 978-9971694241.
- ISBN 978-1412844871.
- ^ Khatab 2011, p. 71.
- ISBN 1845110803.
Later reports claim that Sulayman eventually repented his errors, but those may well represent efforts to smooth over the historical record
- ISBN 9960295001.
There is a difference of opinion concerning whether Sulaimaan eventually gave up his opposition and joined the call of his brother Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Ibn Ghannaam, the earliest chronicler, specifically states that he repented from his previous position and joined his brother in al-Diriyyah. Ibn Bishr simply states that he moved to al-Diriyyah with his family and remained there while receiving a stipend, which may or may not be a sign that he had changed his views. There is actually a letter that was supposedly written by Sulaimaan in which he stated that he repented from his earlier views. Al-Bassaam in Ulamaa Najd presents logical evidence to show that that letter is false and Sulaimaan actually never changed his position
- ^ ISBN 978-1850437574. Archivedfrom the original on 1 July 2020.
- ISBN 0195169913.
Consequently, 'Abd al-Wahhab noted that although visiting Muhammad's grave was a worthy act it must not be done in a spirit or intent that compromises monotheism. Finally, prayer should never be conducted in a cemetery
- ^ ibn Abdul Wahhab, Muhammad. "Chapter 22 The protectiveness of Al-Mustafa (May Allah be pleased with him) of Tawhid and his blockading every path leading to Shirk". Kitab At-Tauhid (PDF). Dar us Salam Publications.
4) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade visiting his grave in a certain manner, though visiting his grave is among the best of deeds. 5) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade us making excessive visits to his grave
- ^ Beranek, Tupek; Ondrej, Pavel (2009). "From Visiting Graves to Their Destruction The Question of Ziyara through the Eyes of Salafis". Brandeis University Crown Center for Middle East Studies: 2, 12, 15 – via Brandeis University.
Ibn Taymiyya spent a large portion of his life in prison for his teachings; his last imprisonment was caused by his issuance of a legal opinion reportedly denouncing the visitation of the Prophet's grave... He was arrested, imprisoned without trial, and by a decree of the sultan, which was read out in the Umayyad Mosque, deprived of the right to issue legal opinions (ifta'). The reason for this was the discovery of Ibn Taymiyya's fatwa on grave visitation, authored by him seventeen years earlier and exploited by Ibn Taymiyya's adversaries. This event was connected with yet another incident. After Ibn al-Qayyim, in full accordance with his master's teaching, had preached in Jerusalem about the intercession of the prophets and denied that one could set out to visit the Prophet's grave without first going to the Prophet's mosque, a group of Ibn Taymiyya's sympathizers was arrested. Ibn al Qayyim, after he had been beaten and paraded on a donkey, was imprisoned along with Ibn Taymiyya.. Ibn Taymiyya prohibits traveling exclusively for the purpose of visiting the Prophet's grave, but it is customary (sunna) to visit it after praying in his mosque, because it was the way of the sahaba... Ibn Taymiyya criticizes hadiths encouraging visitation of the Prophet's grave, pronouncing them all forgeries (mawdu') and lies (kidhb)...
- ^ "Travel Towards Prophet's Resting Place". Islami Education. 17 October 2008.
- ISBN 9960295001.
Muhammad Basheer ibn Muhammad al-Sahsawaani from India (1250–1326 A.H.). He was a scholar from India who went to Makkah and met with and debated Dahlaan. Later he wrote a large volume refuting the false claims and misinterpretations of Dahlaan, entitled Sayaanah al-Insaan an Waswasah al-Shaikh Dahlaan.".. "Similarly, al-Sahsawaani stated that he met more than one scholar of the followers of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab and he read many of their books and he did not find any evidence for the false claim that they declared "non-Wahhabis" disbelievers
- ^ "[Biography] – Allamah Muhammad Bashir Sehsawani [1326H]". Salafi Research Institute. August 2015. Archived from the original on 25 January 2019.
- ISBN 9960295001.
He was a strong supporter of ibn Taimiyyah—publishing his works—as well as of the scholars of Najd—publishing their works in his magazine and in a separate anthology entitled Majmooah al-Rasaail wa al-Masaail al-Najdiyyah. In his introduction to al-Sahwasaani's refutation of Dahlaan, Ridha, in a lengthy passage, described ibn Abdul-Wahhaab as a mujaddid ("religious revivalist"), repelling the innovations and deviations in Muslim life. Through his magazine, al-Manaar, Muhammad Rasheed Ridha greatly contributed to the spread of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab's teachings in the whole Muslim world. In fact, he published some of his articles from that magazine in a work entitled al-Wahhaabiyoon wa al-Hijaaz ("The Wahhabis and the Hijaz"). His magazine was unique in its thought and popularity.
- ISBN 9960295001.
"Muhammad Rasheed Ridha notes that given Dahlaan's position in Makkah and the availability there of works about the call, it is hard to believe that Dahlaan was not aware of the truth about the teachings of ibn Abdul Wahhab and his followers. He must have simply chosen to write otherwise. He further argues that even if he did not see such writings and he relied simply on what he heard from people, it would have been incumbent upon him to verify those reports and to seek out ibn Abdul Wahhab's writings to see if such reports could possibly have been true." ... "Muhammad Rasheed Ridha described the situation best when he wrote, "From the amazing aspects of the ignorance of Dahlaan and others similar to him is that they think that what Allah describes concerning the falsehood of the shirk of the polytheists applies only to them [that is, the polytheists at the time of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)]. They think that such are not proofs against anyone who does similar to what they did. It is as if it is permissible for a Muslim to commit shirk due to his Islamic citizenship, even if he commits every type of associating of partners with Allah enumerated in the Quran. Based on that, he cannot conceive of any kind of apostasy from Islam because anyone who is called a Muslim must also have his kufr and shirk called Islamic [kufr and shirk]. Or it is considered permissible for him or, at the very least, forbidden. Indeed, they considered it sanctioned based on a reinterpretation of the texts." Rasheed Ridha, footnotes to Siyaanah al-Insaan, pp. 479–80
- ^ ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ISBN 0195169913.
- ^ Bey, Ali (1816). Travels of Ali Bey, In Morocco, Tripoli, Cyprus, Egypt, Arabia, Syria and Turkey Vol.II. Philadelphia: The New York Public Library. pp. 79, 157.
- ISBN 0195169913.
- ISBN 9960295001.
The historian and Azhari scholar Abdul-Rahmaan al-Jabarti (1167–1237 A.H.) was very influenced and impressed by the followers of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab and he spread their thoughts in Egypt. He saw in them the greatest potential to revive the Muslim world.
- ISBN 0195169913.
The Egyptian historian Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, who encountered Wahhabis in Egypt ten years later, in 1814, was similarly impressed by the knowledge of the Wahhabi scholars he encountered, despite all of the negative things he had heard about them. The two Wahhabis with whom al-Jabarti met had come to Egypt in search of hadith collections and Hanbali exegetical discussions of the Quran (tafsir) and jurisprudence (fiqh): "I myself met with the two Wahhabis twice and found them to be friendly and articulate, knowledgeable and well versed in historical events and curiosities. They were modest men of good morals, well trained in oratory, in the principles of religion, the branches of fiqh, and the disagreements of the Schools of Law. In all this they were extraordinary.
- ISBN 1845110803.
Whereas Ottoman writers disparaged Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the Egyptian author described him as a man who summoned men to God's book and the Prophet's Sunna, bidding them to abandon innovations in worship. To the Wahhabis' discredit, al-Jabarti reported the 1803 massacre at Ta'if, where Wahhabi forces slaughtered the men and enslaved the women and children. But when it came to doctrinal matters, he reproduced an epistle that the Wahhabis had sent to the religious leader of a Moroccan pilgrim caravan. The epistle set forth their views on idolatry, intercession, festooning the graves of holy men and adhering to the Sunni mainstream. It emphasized that the Wahhabis did not bring anything new but followed classical authorities
- ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ^ Ibn Badran al-Dimashqi, 'Abd al-Qadir (1920). المدخل الى مذهب احمد بن حنبل [al-Madkhal ila Madhhab al-Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (An Introduction to the Madhab of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal)] (in Arabic). New York: Columbia University in City of New York: Libraries. pp. 229–230.
- .
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- ^ Gauvain 2013, p. 9.
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- ^ ibn Adam, Muhammad (1 July 2004). "Shaykh Rashid Ahmad Gangohi's Stance on the Najdis". Dar ul Iftaa. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020.
Question: What kind of a person was (Muhammad ibn) Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi?" "Answer: People call Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab a Wahhabi. He was a good person, and I have heard that he was a follower of the Hanbali School of Islamic law and acted upon the Hadith. He used to prevent people from Shirk and innovation (bid'a), but he was harsh (shadid) in his attitude." Question: Who are the Wahhabis and what was the belief of Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi? What was his Madhhab and what type of person was he? What is the difference in belief between the people of Najd and Sunni Hanafis?" "Answer: The followers of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab are called Wahhabis. They had good (umdah) beliefs and their school of thought was Hanbali. However, they were very stringent in their attitude but he and his followers were good people. But, yes, those who exceeded the limits were overcome by wrongness (fasad). And basic beliefs of everyone are united. The difference they have in actions is (like that) of Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali." (Fatawa Rashidiyya, pp. 241–42) ...
- ISBN 978-1-349-94965-6.
- ISBN 978-1-78308-388-6.
- ^ a b Muhammad Jabir, Sharif (2 October 2017). "Hal Kaana Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab Da'ishiyya?". Aljazeera.net. Archived from the original on 5 November 2021.
- ^ Ali Nadwi, Syed Abul Hasan (2004). "XI: Sons, Disciples and Eminent Contemporaries of Shah Waliullah". Saviours of Islamic Spirit: Volume IV. 253. Lucknow: Academy of Islamic Research & Publications. pp. 282–283.
- ^ ref>Nakamura, Dr. Satoru. "The Perceptions of Muhammad bin ʿAbd al-Wahhāb on Takfīr and Jihād". Middle East Studies Associatiom. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023.
- ^ "There is no such thing as Wahabism, Saudi prince says". The National. 18 March 2010. Archived from the original on 20 August 2019. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. p. 172.
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- ^ "Taliban - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014.
- ^ R. Dillon, Michael (September 2009). "(Thesis) Wahhabism: Is it a Factor in the Spread of Global Terrorism?". Naval Postgraduate School.
the Taliban ... movement emerged more from the Deobandi School and not Wahhabism ... the Saudi government cooperated fully, ..., with U.S. operations in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom) by allowing U.S. forces to use Saudi air bases to control U.S. aircraft ... the ideology of Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda is not Wahhabi. ... The ideology of al-Qaeda is not a simple affair, and it is a serious mistake to reduce it to Wahhabism. To do so is to ignore the extent to which al-Qaeda broke with the traditional geo-political outlook of Wahhabism, which had never entered into politico-military opposition to the West and was indeed in alliance with the U.S. from 1945 onwards. ...
- ^ R. Dillon, Michael (September 2009). "(Thesis) Wahhabism: Is it a Factor in the Spread of Global Terrorism?". Naval Postgraduate School.
.. Saudi Arabia is serious about fighting Al-Qaeda
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In the Arabian Peninsula and especially in Saudi Arabia, Salafism can be traced to the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792). This version of Salafism was and is primarily reformist. It is not revolutionary. Usually, the term "Wahhabism" is used to characterize Salafism in Saudi Arabia. Saudis consider this term pejorative because it makes mainstream religion of Saudi Arabia sound like a cult centered on one man... His reformist approach, however, like Ibn Taymiyya's, was meant to be a rational enterprise that opposed superstition as well as innovation in religion.. his focus was the chaotic eighteenth century tribal rivalry within the Arabian Peninsula, not the world. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's theology thus does not support al-Qaeda's ideology of global jihad. His heirs today are the religious scholars who are the pillars of the modern Saudi state and al-Qaeda's enemies. The Saudi population overwhelmingly prefers its religious institutions and scholars to the revolutionary Salafism of Bin Laden. Al-Qaeda attacks these mainstream Saudi clerics with the vitriol they usually reserve for the United States.
- ^ Nakamura, Dr. Satoru. "The Perceptions of Muhammad bin ʿAbd al-Wahhāb on Takfīr and Jihād". Middle East Studies Associatiom. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023.
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Further reading
- Valentine, S. R., "Force & Fanaticism: Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond", Hurst & Co, London, 2015, ISBN 978-1849044646
- Abualrub, Jalal (2003). Muhammad ibn Abdil Wahhab: his life-story and mission. Madinah Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 978-0970376657. Retrieved 25 December 2011.
- al-Rasheed, Madawi (2009). Kingdom without borders: Saudi political, religious and media frontiers. Capstone. ISBN 978-0231700689.
Online
- Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb: Muslim theologian, in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, Parul Jain, Satyavrat Nirala and Adam Zeidan
External links
- Wheeler Thatcher, Griffithes (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). p. 245. .
- Biodata at MuslimScholars.info