Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab

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Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
محمد بن عبد الوهاب
Title
'Uyayna, Najd[1]
Died1792(1792-00-00) (aged 88–89) (1206 AH)
ReligionIslam
Children
List
  • 'Alī (first)
  • Ḥasan
  • Ḥusain
  • Ibrāhīm
  • Abdullāh
  • 'Alī
  • Fāṭimah
  • 'Abdulazīz
Denomination
Arabic: كتاب التوحيد; "The Book of Monotheism")[6]
RelativesSulayman (brother)
Muslim leader
Influenced by
Influenced
Epithet (Laqab)
an-Najdī
Toponymic (Nisba)at-Tamīmī[11]

Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaymān al-Tamīmī (

activist,[12] religious leader,[9] jurist,[13] and reformer[14] from Najd in central Arabia, considered as the eponymous founder of the so-called Wahhabi movement.[15] His prominent students included his sons Ḥusayn, Abdullāh, ʿAlī, and Ibrāhīm, his grandson ʿAbdur-Raḥman ibn Ḥasan, his son-in-law ʿAbdul-ʿAzīz ibn Muḥammad ibn Saʿūd
, Ḥamād ibn Nāṣir ibn Muʿammar, and Ḥusayn āl-Ghannām.

The label "Wahhabi" is not claimed by his followers but rather employed by Western scholars as well as his critics.

school of Islamic law, which was the school most prevalent in his area of birth.[17] He promoted strict adherence to traditional Islamic law, proclaiming the necessity of returning directly to the Quran and ḥadīth literature rather than relying on medieval interpretations, and insisted that every Muslim – male and female – personally read and study the Quran.[18] He opposed taqlid (blind following) and called for the use of ijtihad (independent legal reasoning through research of scripture).[19][20]

Being given religious training under various

Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728 A.H/ 1328 C.E) and Ibn Qayyim (d. 751 A.H/ 1350 C.E).[26][27]

Despite being opposed or rejected by some of his contemporary critics amongst the religious clergy,

Muhammad bin Saud to help him to establish the Emirate of Diriyah, the first Saudi state,[21][29] and began a dynastic alliance and power-sharing arrangement between their families which continues to the present day in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[21][9][30] The Al ash-Sheikh, Saudi Arabia's leading religious family, are the descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab,[9][31][30] and have historically led the ulama in the Saudi state,[30][32] dominating the state's clerical institutions.[30][33]

Ancestry and early life

An 18th century map of the Arabian Peninsula (circa 1740s)

Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is generally acknowledged to have been born in 1703

school of orthodox Sunni jurisprudence, which was the school of law most prominently practiced in the area.[17] In fact, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's own family "had produced several doctors of the school,"[17] with his father, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, having been the Hanbali jurisconsult of the Najd and his grandfather, Sulaymān, having been a judge of Hanbali law.[17]

Early studies

Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's early education was taught by his father,

occultism, numerology, etc. had become predominant across numerous towns and villages of Arabian Peninsula. He probably chose to leave Najd and look elsewhere for studies to see if such beliefs and rituals were as popular in the neighboring places of the Muslim world or the possibility that his home town offered inadequate educational resources. Even today, the reasoning for why he left Najd is unclear.[17][46]

Travels

Pilgrimage to Mecca

After leaving 'Uyayna around the age of twenty, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab performed the

Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), who holds an exceptionally high position in Islamic history.[47] Many Sunni Muslim scholars who adhere to a scripture-focused orthodox methodology praise Ibn Taymiyyah to be a mujadid of the authentic Sunnah,[48] taking pride in the proliferation of his strict adherence to the Qur'an, Sunnah[49] and way of the companions of Muhammad,[50][51] though his teachings had been considered heterodox and misguided by some Sunni Muslim scholars who ascribed to the Sufis of their time.[52]

Tutelage under Al-Sindhi

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teacher, 'Abdallah ibn Ibrahim ibn Sayf, introduced the relatively young man to

Mohammad Hayya Al-Sindhi in Medina, who belonged to the Naqshbandi order (tariqa) of Sufism,[53][54] and recommended him as a student.[55][56][57] Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab and al-Sindhi became very close, and Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab stayed with him for some time.[55] Muhammad Hayya taught Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab to reject popular religious practices associated with walis and their tombs. He also encouraged him to reject rigid imitation (Taqlid) of medieval legal commentaries and develop individual research of scriptures (Ijtihad).[55] Influenced by Al-Sindi's teachings, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab became critical of the established Madh'hab system, prompting him to disregard the instruments of Usul al-Fiqh in his intellectual approach. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rarely made use of Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and various legal opinions in his writings, by and large forming views based on his direct understanding of Scriptures.[58]

Apart from his emphasis on hadith studies, aversion for the madhhab system and disregard for technical juristic discussions involving legal principles, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb's views on ziyārah (visitations to the shrines of Awliyaa) were also shaped by Al-Sindhi. Sindi encouraged his student to reject folk practices associated with graves and saints.[59] Various themes in Al-Sindi's writings, such as his opposition to erecting tombs and drawing human images, would be revived later by the Wahhabi movement.[60] Sindi instilled in Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab the belief that practices like beseeching the dead saints constituted apostasy and resembled the customs of the people of Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic era).[61] In a significant encounter between a young Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Al-Sindhi reported by the Najdi historian 'Uthman Ibn Bishr (d. 1288 A.H./ 1871/2 C.E.):

"... one day Shaykh Muḥammad [Ibn 'Abdi'l-Wahhāb] stood by the chamber of the Prophet where people were calling [upon him or supplicating] and seeking help by the Prophet's chamber, blessings and peace be upon him. He then saw Muḥammad Ḥayāt [al Sindī] and came to him. The shaykh [Ibn 'Abdi'l-Wahhāb] asked, "What do you say about them?" He [al-Sindī] said, "Verily that in which they are engaged shall be destroyed and their acts are invalid.""[62]

Journey to Basra

Following his early education in Medina, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab traveled outside of the

Rafidah, an extreme sect of Shiism. He also became influenced by the writings of Hanbali theologian Ibn Rajab (d. 1393 C.E/ 795 A.H) such as "Kalimat al-Ikhlas" which inspired Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's seminal treatise "Kitab al-Tawhid".[64][65]

Return to 'Uyaynah

Early preaching

His leave from

'Uyayna, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had mastered various religious disciplines such as Islamic Fiqh (jurisprudence), theology, hadith sciences and Tasawwuf. His exposure to various practices centered around the cult of saints and grave veneration would eventually propel Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab to grow critical of Sufi superstitious accretions and practices.[66][67] Rather than targeting "Sufism" as a phenomenon or a group, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced particular practices which he considered sinful.[68] He fashioned his reformist campaign in a manner that appealed to the socio-cultural dynamics of 18th century Arabia.[69] Many of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's scholarly treatises, pamphlets and speeches appropriated idioms of local Arab dialects, monologues of vernacular poetry and catchphrases of folk culture into his religious discourse.[46]

Usul al-Thalatha (Three Fundamental Principles), a pamphlet by Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab

As a gifted communicator with a talent for breaking down his ideas into shorter units, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab entitled his treatises with terms such as qawāʿid ("principles"), masāʾil ("matters"), kalimāt ("phrases"), or uṣūl ("foundations"), simplifying his texts point by point for mass reading.

stoning of a woman who confessed to having committed adultery.[73][74]

These actions gained the attention of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of

Bani Khalid, the chief of Al-Hasa and Qatif, who held substantial influence in Najd. Ibn Ghurayr threatened Ibn Mu'ammar by denying him the ability to collect a land tax for some properties that Ibn Mu'ammar owned in Al-Hasa if he did not kill or drive away from Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Consequently, Ibn Mu'ammar forced Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to leave.[74][75]

The early Wahhabis had been protected by Ibn Mu'ammar in 'Uyayna, despite being persecuted in other settlements. As soon as Ibn Mu'ammar disowned them, Wahhabis were subject to excommunication (Takfir); exposing themselves to loss of lives and property. This experience of suffering reminded them of the Mihna against Ahmad Ibn Hanbal and his followers, and shaped the collective Wahhabi memory. As late as 1749, the sharif of Mecca imprisoned those Wahhabis who went to Mecca to perform the Hajj (annual pilgrimage).[76]

Pact with Muhammad bin Saud

A 20th century illustration of the Pact of Dir'iyah

Upon his expulsion from 'Uyayna, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring Diriyah by its ruler Muhammad ibn Saud Al Muqrin. After some time in Diriyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded his second and more successful agreement with a ruler.[77] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud agreed that, together, they would bring the Arabs of the peninsula back to the "true" principles of Islam as they saw it. According to the anonymous author of Lam al-Shihab (Brilliance of the Meteor), when they first met, Ibn Saud declared:

"This oasis is yours, do not fear your enemies. By the name of God, if all Nejd was summoned to throw you out, we will never agree to expel you."[78]

Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab replied:

"You are the settlement's chief and wise man. I want you to grant me an oath that you will perform jihad against the unbelievers. In return, you will be imam, leader of the Muslim community and I will be leader in religious matters."[78]

A portrait of the entrance to the city of Diriyah

The agreement was confirmed with a mutual oath of loyalty (bay'ah) in 1744.[79] Once Al-Sa'ud made Dir'iyya a safe haven, Wahhabis from other towns took refuge. These included dissenters from Ibn Mu'ammar clan who had sworn allegiance to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. The nucleus of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's supporters all across Najd retreated to Dir'iyyah and formed the vanguard of the insurgency launched by Al-Saud against other towns.[80]

From a person who started his career as a lone activist, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would become the spiritual guide of the

Ibn Taymiyya, the Muwaḥḥidūn (Unitarian) movement emphasized strict adherence to Qur'an and Sunnah; while simultaneously championing the conception of an Islamic state based on the model of early Muslim community in Medina. Meanwhile, it's Muslim and Western opponents derogatorily labelled the movement as the "Wahhābiyyah" ( anglicised as "Wahhabism" ).[87][88][89]

Rise of Emirate of Dir'iyyah

Emirate of Diriyah, the first Saudi state (1727–1818)

The 1744 pact between Muhammad ibn Saud and Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab marked the rise of the

First Saudi state, the Emirate of Diriyah, which was established in 1727. By offering the Al-Saud a clearly defined religious mission, the alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion.[33] Deducing from his bitter experiences in 'Uyaynah, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had understood the necessity of political backing from a strong Islamic political entity to transform the local socio-religious status quo and also safeguard Wahhabism's territorial base from external pressure. After consolidating his position in Diriyah, he wrote to the rulers and clerics of other towns; appealing them to embrace his doctrines. While some heeded his calls, others rejected it; accusing him of ignorance or sorcery.[90]

War with Riyadh (1746–1773)

Realising the significance of efficient religious preaching (da'wa), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab called upon his students to master the path of reasoning and proselytising over warfare to convince other Muslims of their reformist endeavour.[91] Between 1744 and 1746, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's preaching continued in the same non-violent manner as before and spread widely across the people of Najd. Rulers of various towns across Najd pledged their allegiance to Ibn Suʿūd. This situation changed drastically around 1158/1746; when the powerful anti-Wahhabi chieftain of Riyadh, Dahhām ibn Dawwās (fl. 1187/1773), attacked the town of Manfuha which had pledged allegiance to Diriyah. This would spark a nearly 30-year long between Diriyah and Riyadh, which lasted until 1187/1773, barring some interruptions.[92] First conquering Najd, Muhammad ibn Saud's forces expanded the Wahhabi influence to most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,[33] eradicating various popular practices they viewed as akin to polytheism and propagating the doctrines of ʿAbd al-Wahhab.[33][93]

Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb maintained that the military campaigns of the Emirate of Dirʿiyya were strictly defensive and rebuked his opponents as being the first to initiate Takfir (excommunication).[94] Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had defined jihad as an activity that must have a valid religious justification and which can only be declared by an Imam whose purpose must be strictly defensive in nature.[95] Justifying the Wahhabi military campaigns as defensive operations against their enemies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts:

"As for warfare, until today, we did not fight anyone, except in defense of our lives and honor. They came to us in our area and did not spare any effort in fighting us. We only initiated fighting against some of them in retaliation for their continued aggression, [The recompense for an evil is an evil like thereof] (42:40)... they are the ones who started declaring us to be unbelievers and fighting us"[96][97]


Rebellion in Huraymila (1752–1755)

In 1753–4, the Wahhabis were confronted by an alarming number of towns renouncing allegiance and aligning with their opponents. Most prominent amongst these was the town of Huraymila, which had pledged allegiance to Dir'iyah in 1747. However, by 1752, a group of rebels encouraged by Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's brother, Sulaymān, had initiated a coup in Huraymila and installed a new ruler that threatened to topple the Wahhābī order. A fierce war between Diriyah and Huraymila began in a magnitude that was unprecedented. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab held a convocation of Wahhabis from all the settlements across Najd. Reviewing the recent desertions and defeats, he encouraged them to hold fast to their faith and recommit to the struggle.[98][99]

The ensuing battles and the re-capture of Huraymila in 1168/1755, constituted a significant development in Wahhabi expansionist stage. Abd al-Azeez, the son of Muhammad ibn Saud, had emerged as the principal leader of the Wahhabi military operations. Alongside a force of 800 men, accompanied by an additional 200 under the command of the deposed ruler of Huraymila, Abd al Azeez was able to subdue the rebels. More significantly, the rationale behind the campaign was based on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's newly written epistle Mufīd al-mustafīd, which marked a shift from the earlier posture of defensive Jihad to justify a more aggressive one. In the treatise, compiled to justify Jihad pursued by Dir'iyyah and its allies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab excommunicated the inhabitants of Huraymila and declared it as a duty of Wahhabi soldiers to fight them as apostates. He also quoted several Qur'anic verses indicative of offensive forms of jihād.[100]

Capture of Riyadh and Retirement (1773)

The last point of serious threat to the Saudi state was in 1764-1765. During this period, the Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa of Najrān alongside their allied tribe of 'Ujman, combined forces to inflict a major defeat on the Saudis at the Battle of Hair in October 1764, killing around 500 men. The anti-Wahhabi forces allied with the invaders and participated in the combined siege of Dirʿiyya. However, the defenders were able to hold onto their town due to the unexpected departure of the Najranis after a truce concluded with the Saudis. A decade later in 1773-'4, 'Abd al-Azeez had conquered Riyadh and secured the entirety of al-ʿĀriḍ, after its chieftain Dahham ibn Dawwas fled. By 1776/7, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab had surrendered. The capture of Riyadh marked the point at which Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab delegated all affairs of governing to 'Abd al-Azeez, withdrew from public life and devoted himself to teaching, preaching and worshipping. Meanwhile, 'Abd al-Azeez would proceed with his military campaigns, conquering towns like Sudayr (1196/1781), al-Kharj (1199/1784), etc. Opposition in towns to the North like al-Qaṣīm was stamped out by 1196/1781, and the rebels in ʿUnayza were subdued by 1202/1787. Further north, the town of Ḥāʾil, was captured in 1201/1786 and by the 1780s; Wahhābīs were able to establish their jurisdiction over most of Najd.[101][102][103]

Death

After his departure from public affairs, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would remain a consultant to 'Abd al-Azeez, who followed his recommendations. However, he withdrew from any active military and political activities of the Emirate of Diriyah and devoted himself to educational endeavours, preaching, and worship. His last major activity in state affairs was in 1202/1787; when he called on the people to give bay'ah (allegiance) to Suʿūd, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz's son, as heir apparent.

Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fell ill and died in June 1792 C.E or 1206 A.H in the lunar month of

al-Turayf in al-Dir'iyya.[102][103][104][105] He left behind four daughters and six sons. Many of his sons became clerics of greater or lesser distinction. The descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab are known as the Aal Ash-Shaykhs
and they continued to hold a special position in the Saudi state throughout its history, which still continues.

A clear separation of roles between the

Ottoman-Saudi war. 'Abd Allah would spend his last days as an exile in Cairo, having witnessed the destruction of Dirʿiyya and the execution of his talented son Sulayman ibn 'Abd Allah in 1818.[106][107]

Family

According to academic publications such as the

Maliki scholar from al-Ahsa
.)

Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also had a daughter named Fatimah, who was a revered

hadith sciences and concentrate on her scholarly endeavours. She witnessed the Fall of Dir'iyah and fled to Ras al-Khaimah in 1818; which was captured by the British the following year. As a result, she was again forced to emigrate along with her nephew; this time to Oman, wherein she became a major proponent of reformist teachings of the Muwahhidun and campaigned against various superstitions. Fatimah returned to Riyadh after the establishment of Emirate of Nejd in 1824. Due to her travels, she was often referred to by her appellation "Lady of the Two Migrations". As the daughter of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Fatimah became a role model for Arabian women active in educational efforts and various social undertakings.[111][112]

The descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, the

Salafi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority[114] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[115]

Views

On Tawhid

Kitab al-Tawhid (Book on Monotheism), the most popular treatise of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab

Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab sought to

Arabic: كتاب التوحيد; "The Book of Oneness").[17][9][116][117] He taught that the primary doctrine of Islam was the uniqueness and oneness of God (tawhid),[118][119] and denounced those religious beliefs and practices widespread amongst the people of Najd. Following Ibn Taymiyya's teachings on Tawhid, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab believed that much of Najd had descended into superstitious folk religion akin to the period of Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic era) and denounced much of their beliefs as polytheism (shirk).[120][27] He associated such practices with the culture of Taqlid (imitation to established customs) adored by pagan-cults of Jahiliyya era.[121] Based on the doctrine of Tawhid espoused in Kitab al-Tawhid, the followers of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred themselves by the designation "Al-Muwahhidun" (Unitarians).[89][122]

The "core" of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching is found in Kitāb at-Tawḥīd, a theological treatise which draws from material in the Qur'an and the recorded doings and sayings of the

Sawm); supplication (Dua); seeking protection or refuge (Istia'dha); seeking help (Ist'ana and Istigatha) of Allah.[124][page needed][non-primary source needed
]

According to David Commins, various Muslims throughout history had held the view that declaring the testimony of faith is sufficient in becoming a Muslim.[125] Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab did not agree with this. He asserted that an individual who believed in the existence of intercessors or intermediaries alongside God was guilty of shirk (polytheism or idolatry). This was the major difference between him and his opponents,[126] and led him to label his adversaries who engaged in folk rituals associated with such beliefs to be apostates (a practice known in Islamic jurisprudence as takfir) and idolaters (mushrikin).[127]

Another major doctrine of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was the concept known as Al-'Udhr bil Jahl (excuse of ignorance), wherein any ignorant person unaware of core Islamic teachings is excused by default until clarification. As per this doctrine, those who fell into beliefs of shirk (polytheism) or

kufr (disbelief) cannot be excommunicated until they have direct access to Scriptural evidences and get the opportunity to understand their mistakes and retract. If not, their affairs are to be delegated only to God. Hence, he believed that education and dialogue was the only effective path for the successful implementation of reforms.[128] Explaining this concept in various pamphlets addressed to the masses and other scholars, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab declared:

"What has been mentioned to you about me, that I make generalised takfīr, this is from the slanders of the enemies.. [Rather] we make takfīr of the one who affirms the religion of Allāh and His Messenger but then showed enmity towards it and hindered people from it; as well as the one who worshipped idols after he came to know that this is the religion of the polytheists and beautified it for the people [inviting them to it].. [In fact] every scholar on the face of the Earth makes takfīr of them, save an obstinate or ignorant... But we [only] make takfīr of the one who associates partners with Allāh in His sole right of worship (ilāhiyyah), after we have made clear to him the proof for the futility of shirk."[129]


Rejecting the allegations of his detractors who accused him of ex-communicating whoever didn't follow his doctrines, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab maintained that he only advocated orthodox Sunni doctrines.[130] In a letter addressed to the Iraqi scholar Abdul Rahman Al-Suwaidi who had sought clarification over the rumours spread against his mission, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab explains:

"I am a man of social standing in my village and the people respect my word. This led some chieftains to reject my call, because I called them to what contradicts the traditions they were raised to uphold.... the chieftains directed their criticism and enmity towards our enjoining Tawheed and forbidding Shirk... Among the false accusations they propagated, ... is the claim that I accuse all Muslims, except my followers, of being Kuffar (Unbelievers)... This is truly incredible. How can any sane person accept such accusations? Would a Muslim say these things? I declare that I renounce, before Allah, these statements that only a mad person would utter. In short, what I was accused of calling to, other than enjoining Tawheed and forbidding Shirk, is all false."[131]

On Taqlid

Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was highly critical of the practice of

hadith scholar Muhammad Hayat as Sindi highly influenced the anti-taqlid views of Ibn 'Abd al Wahhab.[132][133][134][135][136]

Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab opposed partisanship to

Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab condemned the popular practice prevalent amongst his contemporary scholars to blindfollow latter-day legal works and urged Muslims to take directly from Qur'an and Sunnah. He viewed it as a duty upon every Muslim, laymen and scholar, male & female, to seek knowledge directly from the sources. Radically departing from both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab viewed the entirety of the prevalent mad'hab system of jurisprudence (Fiqh) as a fundamentally corrupt institution, seeking a radical reform of scholarly institutions and preached the obligation of all Muslims to directly refer to the foundational texts of revelation. He advocated a form of scholarly authority based upon the revival of the practice of ittiba, i.e., laymen following the scholars only after seeking evidences. The prevalent legal system was, in his view, a "factory for the production of slavish emulators" symbolic of Muslim decline.[138]

On the nature of Nubuwwah (Prophethood)

Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab elucidated his concept on the nature of

sirah (Prophetic biography) works such as trees and stones allegedly expressing veneration for Muḥammad, purification of Muhammad's heart by angels, etc. which suggested that Muḥammad possessed characteristics that transcend those of ordinary humans.[139]

Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab adhered to

hadith scholar Ibrāhīm al-Kūrānī (1025/1616–1101/1686); whose son Abūl-Ṭāhir al-Kūrānī was the teacher of Muḥammad Ḥayāt al-Sindi, the master of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. Using this concept to explain Tawhid al-ulūhiyya (Oneness of Worship), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rejected the idea that anybody could act as intercessor between God and man by employing the Qurʾānic verses related to the event. He also used these and other similar incidents to undermine the belief regarding prophets being completely free from sin, error, or Satanic afflictions.[139]

Furthermore, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had given little importance to

cult of saints and veneration of graves. Thus, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's conception of history emphasised the necessity to follow the role-model of Muḥammad and re-establish the Islamic order.[139]

Influence on Salafism

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement is known today as

several forms of puritanical Islam in various parts of the world, while Wahhabism refers to the specific Saudi school, which is seen as a more strict form of Salafism. However, modern scholars remark that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's followers adopted the term "Salafi" as a self-designation much later.[143] His early followers denominated themselves as Ahl al-Tawhid[143] and al-Muwahhidun[7][9][143][144][22] ("Unitarians" or "those who affirm/defend the unity of God"),[7][9][143][144][22] and were labeled "Wahhabis" by their opponents.[9][143][144]

The Salafiyya movement was not directly connected to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement in Najd.[148] According to professor Abdullah Saeed, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab should rather be considered as one of the "precursors" of the modern Salafiyya movement since he called for a return to the pristine purity of the early eras of Islam by adhering to the Qur'an and the Sunnah, rejection of the blind following (Taqlid) of earlier scholars and advocating for Ijtihad.[117] Scholars like Adam J. Silverstein consider Wahhabi movement as "the most influential expression of Salafism of the Islamist sort, both for its role in shaping (some might say: 'creating') modern Islamism, and for disseminating salafi ideas widely across the Muslim world."[144]

On Fiqh

Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's approach to Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) was based on four major principles:[149][150]

  • Prohibition on speaking about God without 'Ilm (knowledge)
  • Ambiguous issues in Scriptures are a mercy to the community and is neither forbidden nor obligatory
  • Obligation to abide by the clear evidences from Scriptures
  • Rulings of halal (allowance) and haram (prohibition) are clear in the Scriptures and those issues which are unclear should be left as ambiguous

According to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, the clear meaning of authentic

Ikhtilaf (scholarly differences), writing:

"The companions of the Messenger of God, may God bless him and grant him peace, differed on various issues without denunciation, so long as the text was not clear. It is upon the believer to place his concern and intent to know the command of God and His Messenger in those matters of disagreement, and to act accordingly whilst respecting the people of knowledge, and respect them, even if they erred, but he does not take them as lords besides God; This is the way of those who are blessed. As for those who throw away their speech and do not respect, then this is the path of those who have incurred God's wrath."[152]


Throughout his epsitles like Arbaʿ qawāʿid tadūruʾl-aḥkām ʿalayhā (Four rules on which rulings revolve), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fiercely attacked the prevalent Hanbali Fiqh opinions; with a broader view of re-orienting the Fiqh tradition. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab challenged the

Maqasid al-Sharia, and intent behind pronouncing legal verdicts which addressed various themes such as societal justice and safeguarding women. He also believed in a holistic legal understanding of Qur'anic verses and hadith, distinguishing between general rules applicable for all Muslims and rulings unique to various life-time situations.[157]

On Islamic revival

As a young scholar in Medina, Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was profoundly influenced by the revivalist doctrines taught by his teachers Muhammad Hayyat ibn Ibrahim al-Sindhi and Abdullah Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Sayf. Much of the Wahhabi teachings such as opposition to saint-cults, radical denunciation of blind-following medieval commentaries, adherence to Scriptures and other revivalist thoughts came from Muhammad Hayyat. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's revivalist efforts were based on a strong belief in Tawhid (Oneness of Allah) and a firm adherence to the Sunnah. His reformative efforts left exemplary marks on contemporary Islamic scholarship. Viewing Blind adherence ( Taqlid ) as an obstacle to the progress of Muslims, he dedicated himself to educating the masses for them to be vanguards of Islam. According to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the degradation and lagging behind of Muslims was due to their neglect of the teachings of Islam, emphasizing that progress could be achieved only by firmly adhering to Islam. He also campaigned against popular Sufi practices associated with istigatha, myths and superstitions.[158][159]

On Sufism

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab praised Tasawwuf. He stated the popular saying: "From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid)".[160] He described Tasawwuf as "the science of the deeds of the heart, which is known as the science of Suluk", and considered it as an important branch of Islamic religious sciences.[161][162]

At the end of his treatise, Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's son

tazkiah (purification of the inner self).[163][164]
'Abd Allah Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab ends his treatise saying:

We do not negate the way of the Sufis and the purification of the inner self from the vices of those sins connected to the heart and the limbs as long as the individual firmly adheres to the rules of Shari'ah and the correct and observed way. However, we will not take it on ourselves to allegorically interpret (ta'wil) his speech and his actions. We only place our reliance on, seek help from, beseech aid from and place our confidence in all our dealings in Allah Most High. He is enough for us, the best trustee, the best mawla and the best helper. May Allah send peace on our master Muhammad, his family and companions.

[165][166]

On social reforms

Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab concerned himself with the social reformation of his people. As an 18th-century reformer, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al Wahhab called for the re-opening of

muamalaat (social interactions), etc. In the affairs of mu'amalat, he harshly rebuked the practice of leaving endowments to prevent the rightful heirs (particularly the females) from receiving their deserved inheritance. He also objected to various forms of riba (usury) as well as the practice of presenting judges with gifts, which according to him, was nothing more than bribing. He also opposed and brought an end to numerous un-Islamic taxes that were forced upon the people.[167][168][169]

On women

The legal writings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab reflected a general concern of female welfare and justice. In line with this approach, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced the practice of instant

Maliki schools). Nevertheless, as a practical jurist, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab allowed guardians to delegate the right to contract marriages to women herself, after which his permission cannot be denied. He also allowed women the right to stipulate favourable conditions for her in the marriage contract. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also defended the woman's right to divorce through Khul' for various reasons, including in cases wherein she despised her husband. He also prohibited the killing of women, children and various non-combatants such as monks, elderly, blind, shaykhs, slaves and peasants in warfare.[170]

In addition to these, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also defended married women's right to maintenance from her husband; as well as bride's right to receive mahr from her groom. He also strongly campaigned against domestic abuses against women, enjoining men to treat their wives with kindness.[171]

Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab believed in social participation of women for communal solidarity; as per Islamic codes of modesty (

hadith sciences; which gained them civic respect as well as a source of income by teaching. As a result, the townsfolk of 19th-century Central Arabia had noticeably higher rates of literacy as observed by foreign travellers. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also encouraged educated women to be active in various communal activities so as to bolster the reformist campaigns of the Muwahhidun, educating other women, generating awareness of superstitions as well as other cultural activities such as reciting poetry, playing tambourine during feasts, weddings and various social gatherings. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's own daughter, Fatima was an influential Islamic scholar active in social and communal affairs and would influence subsequent generations of Arabian women.[172][173]

On Jihad

Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb defined jihad as an activity that must have a valid religious justification and which can only be declared by an Imam whose purpose must be strictly defensive in nature.[174] He viewed the military campaigns of the Emirate of Dirʿiyya as strictly defensive operations against aggressive opponents who initiated Takfir against his followers.[175] Justifying the Wahhabi military campaigns as primarily defensive operations, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts:

"As for warfare, until today, we did not fight anyone, except in defense of our lives and honor. They came to us in our area and did not spare any effort in fighting us. We only initiated fighting against some of them in retaliation for their continued aggression, [The recompense for an evil is an evil like thereof] (42:40)... they are the ones who started declaring us to be unbelievers and fighting us"[175][176]

On Muslim saints

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab strongly condemned the veneration of

Bidʻah (heresy), such as the practice of the pilgrimage towards a tomb believed belong to a companion of the Prophet named Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar in the valley of Ghobaira.[177]

On non-Muslims

According to the

Islamic prophet Muhammad[Note 1] he stated that capital punishment for the sorcerer is "that he be struck with the sword".[178][179] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab asserted that both the Christian and Jewish religions had improperly made the graves of their prophet into places of worship and warned Muslims not to imitate this practice.[178][180] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded that "The ways of the People of the Book are condemned as those of polytheists."[178][181]

However, Western scholar Natana J. DeLong-Bas defended the position of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, stating that:

despite his at times vehement denunciations of other religious groups for their supposedly heretical beliefs, Ibn Abd al Wahhab never called for their destruction or death ... he assumed that these people would be punished in the Afterlife ..."[182]

Reception

By contemporaries

The doctrines of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab were criticized by a number of

heresy".[143]

On the other hand, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb and his supporters held that they were the victims of aggressive warfare; accusing their opponents of starting the pronouncements of Takfir (excommunication) and maintained that the military operations of Emirate of Dirʿiyya were strictly defensive. The memory of the unprovoked military offensive launched by Dahhām ibn Dawwās (fl. 1187/1773), the powerful chieftain of Riyadh, on Diriyya in 1746 was deeply engrained in the Wahhabi tradition.[184][185] Early Wahhabi chronicler Ibn Ghannām states in his book Tarikh an-Najd (History of Najd) that Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb did not order the use of violence until his enemies excommunicated him and deemed his blood licit:

"He gave no order to spill blood or to fight against the majority of the heretics and the misguided until they started ruling that he and his followers were to be killed and excommunicated."

[186]

By 1802, the

heretics. It also misrepresents many Najdi Hanbali scholars as on the side of Ottoman Hanbalis.[190]

Ibn Humayd's maternal lineage, Al-Turki, was of some local renown for its religious scholars, including two men who opposed the Wahhabi movement. One of them, named Ibn Muhammad, compared Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab with

Musaylimah.[191] He also accused Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab of wrongly declaring fellow Muslims to be infidels based on a misguided reading of Quranic passages and prophetic traditions (Hadith),[191] and of wrongly declaring all scholars as infidels who did not agree with his "deviant innovation".[191] In contrast to this anti-Wahhabi family tradition, Ibn Humayd's early education included extensive studies under two Wahhabi Shaykhs, both praised in his biographical dictionary. He then travelled to Damascus and Mecca, wherein he attended lessons of men known for strong anti-Wahhabi convictions. Ibn Humayd's compatibility with Ottoman religious outlook made him eligible for the post of Ottoman Mufti in Mecca.[191]

Another Hanbali scholar whom Ibn Humayd portrays as a central figure in rejecting Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's doctrine was Ibn Fayruz Al-Tamimi al-Ahsai (1729/30 – 1801/02). Ibn Fayruz publicly repudiated Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings when he sent an envoy to him. Ibn Fayruz then wrote to Sultan Abdul Hamid I and requested Ottoman assistance to subjugate Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's followers, whom he referred to as the "seditious Kharijites" of Najd. The Wahhabis, in turn, came to view him as one of their worst enemies and an exemplar of idolatry.[192]

According to Ibn Humayd, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's father criticized his son for his unwillingness to specialize in jurisprudence and disagreed with his doctrine and declared that he would be the cause of wickedness.[193] Similarly his brother, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab, wrote one of the first treatises refuting the Wahhabi doctrine,[194][142][193] The Divine Thunderbolts in Refutation of Wahhabism (Al-Šawā'iq Al-Ilāhiyya fī Al-radd 'alā Al-Wahhābiyya),[194][142] alleging that Muhammad was ill-educated and intolerant, and classing his views as fringe and fanatical.[183][194] Sulayman's first anti-Wahhabi treatise was followed by a second book, The Unmistakable Judgment in the Refutation of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab (Faṣl al-Ḫiṭāb fī Al-radd 'alā Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb).[194] Later Muwahhidun scholarly figures like Abdullah ibn Abd al-Latif Aal al-Shaykh (d. 1921 C.E) would respond to these accusations by asserting that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab refrained from making Takfir:

" Shaykh Muhammad (May God have Mercy on him) never made takfeer of the people in the beginning; except via establishing the proofs and the da'wah, because at that time there was a dearth of knowledge of the message (of Islām) and for that reason he said 'due to their ignorance and the lack of anyone who makes them aware'. However, as for those on whom the proofs are established, then there is nothing to prevent takfeer being made on such people"[195]

Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was known to have had disagreements with both his father and his brother Sulayman.[7][17] [24][28] [194] Sulayman, his brother, disputed many of his doctrinal statements and was one of his staunch opponents during a certain time-period. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's father disagreed with his son's metholodolgy in implementing reforms.[196] According to historical records, Sulayman declared his repentance and started to support his brother during later life, after understanding the doctrines and objectives of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's revivalist movement.[197][198][199][200][201]

The 19th century anti-Wahhabi critic and historian

madhab in Mecca,[202][203]
recorded the account of the dispute between Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his brother Sulayman, reporting that:

Sulayman [ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab] once asked his brother Muhammad [ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab], "How many are the

pillars of Islam?" "Five," he answered. Sulayman replied, "No, you have added a sixth one: He who does not follow you is not a Muslim. This, to you, is the sixth pillar of Islam."[204]

According to various historical records, Sulayman repented and joined the religious mission of his brother.[205] However, there is a disagreement regarding his repentance. While earlier Najdi chroniclers like Ibn Ghannam reported he repented and embraced Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's cause in Diriyah, later historians like Ibn Bishr simply mentions his departure to Diriyah with his family and his last years under the protection of Diriyah, while being allowed by state-allotted stipend. A letter attributed to Sulayman also mentions his public repentance.[206]

The Ottoman

Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Qayyim, who inspired Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, had issued Fatwas declaring the visitations to the tomb of Muhammad to be haram (forbidden); which would lead to their imprisonment.[210][211]

In response, the British Indian Ahl-i Hadith scholar Muhammad Bashir Sahsawani (1834-1908 C.E) wrote the treatise Sayaanah al-Insaan an Waswaswah al-Shaikh Dahlaan in order to refute Dahlan. Sahsawani asserted that after his correspondence with various scholars of the Muwahhidun movement and study of their creedal works; he came to the conclusion that the allegation that they excommunicated "non-Wahhabis" were false and slanderous.[212][213]

The Islamic scholar

Al-Manar magazine, Rashid Rida greatly contributed to the spread of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings in the Islamic world. He was a strong supporter of Ibn Taymiyyah and scholars of Najd, publishing works in his magazine entitled Majmooah al-Rasaail wa al-Masaail al-Najdiyyah and al-Wahhaabiyoon wa al-Hijaaz.[214] Rida notes that given Dahlan's position in Mecca, and availability there of the works of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, he must have simply chosen to write otherwise. Rida also argued that Dahlan simply wrote what he heard from people, and criticised him for not verifying reports and seeking out the writings of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. He condemned Dahlan for his ignorance and his sanctioning of acts of kufr and shirk; based on his reinterpretation of Islamic texts.[215]

Rashid Rida contended that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was a victim of persecution by the combined oppression of three forces: i) the power of state and its rulers ii) power of hypocritical scholars and iii) power of tyrannical commoners.[216] Fiercely rebuking his opponents, Rashid Rida declared:

"The best weapon they brandished against him was that he contradicted the majority of Muslims. Who were the majority of Muslims Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab contradicted in his Da'wah? They were Bedouins of the desert, worse than the people of Jahiliyyah, intent on looting and theft. They allowed shedding the blood of Muslims and non-Muslims, just to earn a living. They took their tyrants as judges in every matter and denied many aspects of Islam on which there is consensus [especially among scholars], matters in which no Muslim can claim ignorance."[216]

Basra in 1784 attributed the popular hysteria about the Wahhabis to a different cause. Unlike Ottoman depictions, Brydges believed that Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's doctrine was in keeping with the teachings of Quran, was "perfectly orthodox", "consonant to the purest and best interpretations of that volume", and that Ottomans feared its spread precisely on that basis.[219]

The

innovations in worship". Through his writings, Al-Jabarti repeatedly stressed that the beliefs and doctrines championed by Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab were nothing other than orthodox Sunni Islam.[222]

Moroccan military leader 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi (1882-1963 C.E) praised Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's reform endeavour as a "promising voice" that sparked spiritual and intellectual Awakening across the Islamic World.[223]

Prominent

bid'ah and resisting what illiterates have made part of this monotheistic religion and Sharia of moderation. Some people supported him and made their worship solely to The One God following his path, which was to establish pure Tawhid, call sincerely to monotheism and direct worship in all of its forms solely to The Creator of creation alone. Some people resisted him; they were used to rigidity in following what their forefathers did and they armoured themselves with laziness instead of seeking the truth."[224]

Modern reception

Various academics have compared Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to the 15th-century

mujtahid in fiqh, accusing him of 'blindlly' following the Hanbali school.[227] Al-Albani also challenged Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's credentials in the knowledge of hadith.[228]

According to the 20th-century

Tunisian Islamist intellectual Rached Gannouchi writes:

"Just as in the West in the age of Renaissance, the Muslim world was stirred by a great awakening. Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab’s message of jihad and ijtihad inspired an unbroken movement... to push the umma towards jihad against its enemies, to abandon the guise of tradition (taqlid) and to unite its divisions around the mystical origins of Islam and Islamic thought."[230]

Muhammad Ilyas Kandhlawi, Yusuf Kandhalawi, etc. were supportive of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's ideals. Senior Deobandi scholar Manzur Numani penned the treatise "Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab ke Khilaf Propaganda" (The Propaganda against Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab) in defense of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. Thus, many activists of Deobandi persuasion view Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement as an example for establishing an Islamic state in contemporary Muslim societies.[233][234]

Islamic scholar Yusuf Al-Qārādawī praised Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab as a Mujaddid (religious reviver) of the Arabian Peninsula who defended the purity of Tawhid from various superstitions and polytheistic beliefs.[235] Praising Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's efforts, Muhammad Rashīd Ridá wrote:

"Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi was one of those Mujaddids, [who] called for the upholding of Tawhid and the sincerity of worship to God alone with what He legislated in His Book and on the tongue of His Messenger, the Seal of the Prophets; ... abandoning heresies and sins, establishing the abandoned rituals of Islam, and venerating its violated sanctities."[235]

In his book "Saviours of the Islamic Spirit", Islamic scholar

Islamic revivalist Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (1703-1762 C.E/ 1114-1176 A.H) who had expounded similar ideas such as differentiating between Tawhid-i-Uluhiyyat (Oneness of Worship) and Tawhid-i-Rububiyat (Oneness of Lordship) and promotion of strict adherence to Qur'an and Hadith. In Nadwi's opinion, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was able to make outstanding efforts with far-reaching impact compared to other contemporary reformers since he played the role of a revolutionary reformer whose initiatives were implemented through a newly established Islamic state and thus his movement was highly pertinent for the people of his time.[236]

Salman bin Abdulaziz, at the time serving as the governor of Riyadh, said that the doctrine of Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was pure Islam, and said regarding his works:

"I dare anyone to bring a single alphabetical letter from the Sheikh's books that goes against the book of Allah and the teachings of his prophet, Muhammad."

[238]

Western Reception

During the early 21st century Western security discourse, Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement, Wahhabism, was often associated with various

Salafi Jihadist militant organization, has also been inspired by Wahhabi doctrines,[247][23][248] alongside Salafism, Qutbism,[249][250] and Salafi jihadism.[251][252]

During the early years of


On the other hand, contemporary Western historians and researchers have taken a more nuanced approach on the history and evolution of the "

Egyptian Islamist extremism of the 20th century, rather than Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's socio-religious reformism. Although many Salafi-Jihadists maybe inspired by Wahhabi ideals, it doesn't credibly explain their inclinations towards lethal violence.[255]

Western scholars like Michael Ryan assert that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's reformist teachings were a rationalist enterprise that sought to eradicate superstitions widespread in the context of tribal rivalry within the Arabian Peninsula. Moreover, the regional background of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's intellectual efforts in the chaotic context of the 18th-century Arabian Peninsula had been distinct from the 21st century global Jihad ideology of organisations like Al-Qaeda or IS. Consequently, his scholarly heirs, including the prestigious Aal al-Shaykhs constitute the primary ideological nemesis of groups such as Al-Qaeda. Since the Saudi population overwhelmingly prefers their traditional religious institutions and scholars to Bin Laden's claims to revolutionary Jihadi-Salafism; Al-Qaeda harshly attacks these mainstream Saudi clerics with much rhetorical vitriol.[257]

Various scholars have also contested

Wasitiyya).[258]

Contemporary recognition

Imam Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Mosque in Doha, the national mosque of Qatar

Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's thoughts would greatly influence the

national mosque of Qatar is named after him.[260] The "Imam Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Mosque" was opened in 2011, with the Emir of Qatar presiding over the occasion.[261] The mosque has the capacity to host a congregation of 30,000 people.[262] In 2017, there was a request published in the Saudi Arabian newspaper Okaz signed by 200 descendants of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab that the name of the mosque be changed, because according to their statement "it does not carry its true Salafi path", even though most Qataris adhere to Wahhabism.[263]

The

UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2010. In 2011, Saudi Arabia announced its plans for large-scale development of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's domain Diriyah; to establish a national cultural site in Diriyah and turn it into a major tourist attraction.[266][267] Other features in the area include the Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab Foundation, which is planned to include a light and sound presentation[268] located near the Mosque of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahab.[269]

Works

Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab has been described as a "prolific writer" whose scholarly treatises are collected into fourteen large volumes; which consists of various legal books, Qur'anic commentaries, creedal works, and compilation of fatwas.[270] Some of his major works include:

  • Risālah Aslu Dīn Al-Islām wa Qā'idatuhu
  • Kitab al-Quran (The book of Allah)
  • Kitab at-Tawhid (The Book of the Oneness of God)
  • Kashf ush-Shubuhaat (Clarification of the Doubts)
  • Al-Usool-uth-Thalaatha (The Three Fundamental Principles)
  • Al Qawaaid Al 'Arbaa (The Four Foundations)
  • Al-Usool us Sittah (The Six Fundamental Principles)
  • Nawaaqid al Islaam (Nullifiers of Islam)
  • Adab al-Mashy Ila as-Salaa (Manners of Walking to the Prayer)
  • Usul al-Iman (Foundations of Faith)
  • Fada'il al-Islam (Excellent Virtues of Islam)
  • Fada'il al-Qur'an (Excellent Virtues of the Qur'an)
  • Majmu'a al-Hadith 'Ala Abwab al-Fiqh (Compendium of the Hadith on the Main Topics of the Fiqh)
  • Mukhtasar al-Iman (Abridgement of the Faith; i.e. the summarised version of a work on Faith)
  • Mukhtasar al-Insaf wa'l-Sharh al-Kabir (Abridgement of the Equity and the Great Explanation)
  • Mukhtasar Seerat ar-Rasul (Summarised Biography of the Prophet)
  • Kitaabu l-Kabaair (The Book of Great Sins)
  • Kitabu l-Imaan (The Book of Trust)
  • Al-Radd 'ala al-Rafida (The Refutation of the Rejectionists)

See also

  • Ibn Taymiyyah
  • Wahhabi Movement
  • Emirate of Diriyah
  • International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism

Sources

Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh al-Najd by chronicler Uthman ibn 'Abdullah Ibn Bishr

Two of the earliest sources for the biography of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and early history of the Wahhabi movement have been documented by its followers:

  • Wahhabi chronicler and scholar Ibn Ghannam's Rawdhat al-Afkar wal-Afham or Tarikh Najd (History of Najd) and Husain ibn Ghannam (d. 1811), an alim from al-Hasa was the only historian to have observed the beginnings of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement first-hand. His chronicle ends at the year 1797.[271][272]
  • Najdi Historian Ibn Bishr's Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd (The Glorious History of Najd). Ibn Bishr's chronicle, which stops at the year 1854, was written a generation later than Ibn Ghannam's but is considered valuable partly because Ibn Bishr was a native of Najd and because he adds many details to Ibn Ghannam's account.[271]

A third account, covering Arabian history between the 1730s to 1817 is Lam' al-Shihab (The Brilliance of the Meteor) written by an anonymous author who respectfully disapproved of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement, regarding it as a

bid'ah
(heresy).

It is also commonly cited in Orientalist circles because it is considered to be a relatively objective and unofficial treatment of the subject. However, unlike Ibn Ghannam and Ibn Bishr, its author did not live in Najd and his work contains various tales, apocryphal and legendary materials concerning the details of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life.[41][273]

References

Notes

  1. caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate
    .

Citations

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  3. AltaMira Press
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  4. ^ Halverson 2010, p. 48.
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  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i Haykel 2013, pp. 231–32.
  10. .
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  12. . He was not a great intellectual like Ibn Qudama, Ibn Taymiyya, or Ibn al-Qayyim but rather an activist.
  13. . Muhammad ibn ῾Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792), was a scholar and Hanbali jurist who called for a return to the fundamental sources of Islamic revelation, the Qur᾽an and sunna (example of Muhammad) for direct interpretation, resulting in decreased attention to and reliance upon medieval interpretations of these sources
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  18. .
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  20. .
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  25. .
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  34. ^ a b Philby 1930: 8.
  35. ^ Glassé 2003: 470.
  36. ^ .
  37. ^ EI1: 1086.
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  43. ^ Al-Ṭaḥāwī, Matn al-ʿaqīda al-ṭaḥāwiyya, ed. Muḥammad Nāṣir al-Dīn al-Albānī (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islāmī, 1398/1978), 59: "[W]e believe in what has come via sound transmission through trustworthy narrators (ṣaḥḥa ʿan al-thiqāt min ruwātihim) from among their [the saints'] miracles".
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  51. ^ Ibn Mas’ood said: “Follow (the Sunnah) and do not innovate, because you have been sufficed.” Ad-Darimi and he also said: “Practicing a little of the Sunnah is far better than practicing many innovations.” Al-Hakim
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  57. ^ Official sources on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life put his visits to these cities in different chronological orders, and the full extent of such travels remains disputed among historians. As well, dates are missing in a great many cases, making it difficult to reconstruct a chronology of his life up until his return to 'Uyayna in 1740.
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  60. . Certain themes that Hayat al-Sindl discussed in his writings, such as his opposition to erecting tombs and drawing human images, would soon resurface in the teachings of Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Wahhab.
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  64. . Ibn Abd al-Wahhab set out for Basra (located in modern Iraq), where he pursued additional studies in hadith and fiqh with an important scholar and madrasa (Islamic school) teacher, Muhammad al-Majmu'i... It is believed that Ibn Abd al-Wahhab came into contact with Shiis during this stay in Basra,... he specifically targeted only one particular extremist sect, the Rafidah, in only one treatise.
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  95. . Ibn Abd al-Wahhab described jihad as an activity that must always have a religious justification and can only be declared by the religious leader (imam) and whose intent and purpose must be strictly defensive in nature.
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  126. from the original on 5 January 2020. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab included in the category of such acts popular religious practices that made holy men into intercessors with God. That was the core of the controversy between him and his adversaries, including his brother.
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  133. – via Wiley Online Library. (his criticism)... was also directed against the blind acceptance of religious authority (taqlid ) and by implication the 'ulama for confining independent reasoning (ijtihad ) and for their uncritical acceptance of medieval Islamic sources as the final authority on these questions. Instead, he maintained that final authoritative sources are those of the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet along with the precedents of the early Companions, who considered ijtihad as necessary for the continuous interpretation of Islamic law" ... "By upholding the absolute supremacy of the Qur'an and the early Sunnah, his intention was to undercut the authority of ijma, the consensus arrived at by the established 'ulama and extend the practice of independent reasoning [as against taqlid (traditionalism) ].
  134. ^ Farquhar, Michael (2013). Expanding the Wahhabi Mission: Saudi Arabia, the Islamic University of Medina and the Transnational Religious Economy. London: The London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 64. ..Muhammad Hayya al-Sindi in Medina influenced a shift on the part of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab towards criticism of taqlīd and many popular religious practices
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  138. ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). "MANIFEST ENMITY: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)". Near Eastern Studies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University: 153–161. Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb employs this proof in pursuit of a more radical conclusion than the one reached by Ibn Taymiyya. He uses it to inveigh against the entire educational institution surrounding Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), which he takes as emblematic of the sad state of learning in Islam"... "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb considered the institution of fiqh as a kind of factory for the production of slavish emulators. The real task of a scholar, he argued, is to return to the texts of revelation, not to the opinions of men" ... "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb drew on both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim... Yet neither of them wrote off the entire field of jurisprudence as irredeemable, as Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb did"... "he describes his position with respect to scholarly authority as... ittibāʿ (following)
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  145. ^ The National, March 18, 2010: There is no such thing as Wahhabism, Saudi prince says Archived 27 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Linked 3 March 2015.
  146. ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. New York: I.B. Tauris. p. ix. Thus, the mission's devotees contend that 'Wahhabism' is a misnomer for their efforts to revive correct Islamic belief and practice. Instead of the Wahhabi label, they prefer either salafi, one who follows the ways of the first Muslim ancestors (salaf), or muwahhid, one who professes God's unity.
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  148. . AL-SALAFIYYA. .. It was not directly connected to the movement of Shaykh Muhammad Bin 'Abd al-Wahhab in Najd.
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  158. . Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb came to Madina as a relatively young scholar and studied under Muhammad Hayyā al-Sindi.... Scholars have described Muhammad Hayyā as having an impor- tant influence on Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb, encouraging him in his developing determination to denounce rigid imitation of medieval commentaries and to utilize informed individual analysis (ijtihād). Muhammad Hayyà also taught Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb a rejection of popular religious practices associated with saints and their tombs that is similar to later Wahhābi teachings.
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  169. . Ibn Abd al-Wahhab called for the reopening of ijtihad (independent legal judgment) by qualified persons to reform Islam..
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  187. . By 1802, the Ottomans were mounting a doctrinal campaign, sending official tracts refuting Wahhabi positions and likening them to the Kharijites of early Islamic times.
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  205. . Later reports claim that Sulayman eventually repented his errors, but those may well represent efforts to smooth over the historical record
  206. . There is a difference of opinion concerning whether Sulaimaan eventually gave up his opposition and joined the call of his brother Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Ibn Ghannaam, the earliest chronicler, specifically states that he repented from his previous position and joined his brother in al-Diriyyah. Ibn Bishr simply states that he moved to al-Diriyyah with his family and remained there while receiving a stipend, which may or may not be a sign that he had changed his views. There is actually a letter that was supposedly written by Sulaimaan in which he stated that he repented from his earlier views. Al-Bassaam in Ulamaa Najd presents logical evidence to show that that letter is false and Sulaimaan actually never changed his position
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  208. . Consequently, 'Abd al-Wahhab noted that although visiting Muhammad's grave was a worthy act it must not be done in a spirit or intent that compromises monotheism. Finally, prayer should never be conducted in a cemetery
  209. ^ ibn Abdul Wahhab, Muhammad. "Chapter 22 The protectiveness of Al-Mustafa (May Allah be pleased with him) of Tawhid and his blockading every path leading to Shirk". Kitab At-Tauhid (PDF). Dar us Salam Publications. 4) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade visiting his grave in a certain manner, though visiting his grave is among the best of deeds. 5) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade us making excessive visits to his grave
  210. ^ Beranek, Tupek; Ondrej, Pavel (2009). "From Visiting Graves to Their Destruction The Question of Ziyara through the Eyes of Salafis". Brandeis University Crown Center for Middle East Studies: 2, 12, 15 – via Brandeis University. Ibn Taymiyya spent a large portion of his life in prison for his teachings; his last imprisonment was caused by his issuance of a legal opinion reportedly denouncing the visitation of the Prophet's grave... He was arrested, imprisoned without trial, and by a decree of the sultan, which was read out in the Umayyad Mosque, deprived of the right to issue legal opinions (ifta'). The reason for this was the discovery of Ibn Taymiyya's fatwa on grave visitation, authored by him seventeen years earlier and exploited by Ibn Taymiyya's adversaries. This event was connected with yet another incident. After Ibn al-Qayyim, in full accordance with his master's teaching, had preached in Jerusalem about the intercession of the prophets and denied that one could set out to visit the Prophet's grave without first going to the Prophet's mosque, a group of Ibn Taymiyya's sympathizers was arrested. Ibn al Qayyim, after he had been beaten and paraded on a donkey, was imprisoned along with Ibn Taymiyya.. Ibn Taymiyya prohibits traveling exclusively for the purpose of visiting the Prophet's grave, but it is customary (sunna) to visit it after praying in his mosque, because it was the way of the sahaba... Ibn Taymiyya criticizes hadiths encouraging visitation of the Prophet's grave, pronouncing them all forgeries (mawdu') and lies (kidhb)...
  211. ^ "Travel Towards Prophet's Resting Place". Islami Education. 17 October 2008.
  212. . Muhammad Basheer ibn Muhammad al-Sahsawaani from India (1250–1326 A.H.). He was a scholar from India who went to Makkah and met with and debated Dahlaan. Later he wrote a large volume refuting the false claims and misinterpretations of Dahlaan, entitled Sayaanah al-Insaan an Waswasah al-Shaikh Dahlaan.".. "Similarly, al-Sahsawaani stated that he met more than one scholar of the followers of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab and he read many of their books and he did not find any evidence for the false claim that they declared "non-Wahhabis" disbelievers
  213. ^ "[Biography] – Allamah Muhammad Bashir Sehsawani [1326H]". Salafi Research Institute. August 2015. Archived from the original on 25 January 2019.
  214. . He was a strong supporter of ibn Taimiyyah—publishing his works—as well as of the scholars of Najd—publishing their works in his magazine and in a separate anthology entitled Majmooah al-Rasaail wa al-Masaail al-Najdiyyah. In his introduction to al-Sahwasaani's refutation of Dahlaan, Ridha, in a lengthy passage, described ibn Abdul-Wahhaab as a mujaddid ("religious revivalist"), repelling the innovations and deviations in Muslim life. Through his magazine, al-Manaar, Muhammad Rasheed Ridha greatly contributed to the spread of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab's teachings in the whole Muslim world. In fact, he published some of his articles from that magazine in a work entitled al-Wahhaabiyoon wa al-Hijaaz ("The Wahhabis and the Hijaz"). His magazine was unique in its thought and popularity.
  215. . "Muhammad Rasheed Ridha notes that given Dahlaan's position in Makkah and the availability there of works about the call, it is hard to believe that Dahlaan was not aware of the truth about the teachings of ibn Abdul Wahhab and his followers. He must have simply chosen to write otherwise. He further argues that even if he did not see such writings and he relied simply on what he heard from people, it would have been incumbent upon him to verify those reports and to seek out ibn Abdul Wahhab's writings to see if such reports could possibly have been true." ... "Muhammad Rasheed Ridha described the situation best when he wrote, "From the amazing aspects of the ignorance of Dahlaan and others similar to him is that they think that what Allah describes concerning the falsehood of the shirk of the polytheists applies only to them [that is, the polytheists at the time of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)]. They think that such are not proofs against anyone who does similar to what they did. It is as if it is permissible for a Muslim to commit shirk due to his Islamic citizenship, even if he commits every type of associating of partners with Allah enumerated in the Quran. Based on that, he cannot conceive of any kind of apostasy from Islam because anyone who is called a Muslim must also have his kufr and shirk called Islamic [kufr and shirk]. Or it is considered permissible for him or, at the very least, forbidden. Indeed, they considered it sanctioned based on a reinterpretation of the texts." Rasheed Ridha, footnotes to Siyaanah al-Insaan, pp. 479–80
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  220. . The historian and Azhari scholar Abdul-Rahmaan al-Jabarti (1167–1237 A.H.) was very influenced and impressed by the followers of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab and he spread their thoughts in Egypt. He saw in them the greatest potential to revive the Muslim world.
  221. . The Egyptian historian Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, who encountered Wahhabis in Egypt ten years later, in 1814, was similarly impressed by the knowledge of the Wahhabi scholars he encountered, despite all of the negative things he had heard about them. The two Wahhabis with whom al-Jabarti met had come to Egypt in search of hadith collections and Hanbali exegetical discussions of the Quran (tafsir) and jurisprudence (fiqh): "I myself met with the two Wahhabis twice and found them to be friendly and articulate, knowledgeable and well versed in historical events and curiosities. They were modest men of good morals, well trained in oratory, in the principles of religion, the branches of fiqh, and the disagreements of the Schools of Law. In all this they were extraordinary.
  222. . Whereas Ottoman writers disparaged Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the Egyptian author described him as a man who summoned men to God's book and the Prophet's Sunna, bidding them to abandon innovations in worship. To the Wahhabis' discredit, al-Jabarti reported the 1803 massacre at Ta'if, where Wahhabi forces slaughtered the men and enslaved the women and children. But when it came to doctrinal matters, he reproduced an epistle that the Wahhabis had sent to the religious leader of a Moroccan pilgrim caravan. The epistle set forth their views on idolatry, intercession, festooning the graves of holy men and adhering to the Sunni mainstream. It emphasized that the Wahhabis did not bring anything new but followed classical authorities
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Sources

Further reading

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