Muhammad ibn al-Qasim

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Muhammad ibn al-Qasim
محمد بن القاسم‎
al-Hind (India in Abd al-Malik al-Hind coin 715 CE) in the year seven and ninety"
1st Governor of al-Sindh
In office
712–715
LeaderAl-Walid I
Preceded byPosition established
Succeeded byHabib ibn al-Muhallab
Personal details
Born(695-12-31)31 December 695
Muslim conquest of Sind (708–711)
Siege of Debal (711)
Battle of Aror
(711)

Muḥammad ibn al-Qāsim al-Thaqafī (

Muslim rule in South Asia
.

Muhammad ibn al-Qasim belonged to the

Persia, he was assigned as the governor of Fars, likely succeeding his uncle Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi. From 708 to 711, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim led the Sindh conquest. He established Islamic rule throughout the region, serving as governor of Sindh from 712 until his death in 715. After his last conquest of Multan (Punjab) he returned to Arabia where on the way he died in Mosul, in modern Iraq, though some sources[who?] record that his body was buried in Makran, a semi-desert coastal region in Balochistan.[citation needed
]

Sources

Information about Muhammad ibn al-Qasim and the Arab conquest of Sind in the medieval Arabic sources is limited, compared to the contemporary

al-Ya'qubi (d. 898), a few lines in the history of al-Tabari (d. 839) and scant mention in the Kitab al-Aghani (Book of songs) of Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani.[1] A detailed account of Muhammad's conquest of Sind and his death is found in the Chach Nama, a 13th-century Persian text.[1] The information in the Chach Nama purportedly derives from accounts by the descendants of the Arab soldiers of the 8th-century conquest, namely qadis (judges) and imams from the Sindi cities of Alor and Bhakar who claimed descent from Muhammad's tribe, the Banu Thaqif.[1] The Orientalist Francesco Gabrieli holds the accounts likely emerged after c. 1000 and considers the Chach Nama to be a "historical romance" and "a late and doubtful source" for information about Muhammad.[2]

Origins and early life

Muhammad was born in c. 694.

Ta'if, the traditional home of his Thaqif tribe, or in Mecca or Medina.[4] Following their general embrace of Islam in c. 630, members of the Thaqif gradually attained high military and administrative ranks in the nascent Caliphate and played important command and economic roles during and after the early Muslim conquests, particularly in Iraq.[5] The tribe produced effective commanders associated with early Arab military operations against the Indian subcontinent: in c. 636 the Thaqafite governor of Bahrayn (eastern Arabia), Uthman ibn Abi al-As, dispatched naval expeditions against the Indian ports of Debal, Thane and Bharuch.[6] The tribe's power continued to increase with the advent of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661.[6]

Muhammad belonged to the Abu Aqil family of the Banu Awf, one of the two principal branches of the Thaqif.

Second Muslim Civil War and killed the Umayyads' chief rival for the caliphate, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, in 692, and two years later was appointed the viceroy of Iraq and the eastern Caliphate.[7][4] Following his promotion, al-Hajjaj became a patron of the Thaqif and appointed several members to important posts in Iraq and its dependencies.[8] Muhammad's father was appointed the deputy governor of Basra, though his career was otherwise undistinguished.[9] According to a letter between Muhammad and al-Hajjaj cited by the Chach Nama, Muhammad's mother was a certain Habibat al-Uzma (Habiba the Great).[9] The Chach Nama also indicates Muhammad had a similar-aged brother named Sulb and Arabic sources indicate he had a much younger brother named al-Hajjaj, who served as an Umayyad commander during the Alid revolt of 740.[9]

No information is provided by the Arabic sources about Muhammad's childhood and adolescence.

Nabi Bakhsh Baloch holds that Muhammad most likely grew up partly in Ta'if and then Basra and Wasit, the provincial capital of Iraq founded by al-Hajjaj in 702.[9] Muhammad's time in Basra, a military and intellectual centre of the Islamic world at the time, may have widened Muhammad's career horizons, while at Wasit he was likely educated and trained under al-Hajjaj's patronage.[10]

Al-Hajjaj was highly fond of Muhammad,[10] and considered him prestigious enough to marry his sister Zaynab,[11] though she preferred the older Thaqafite al-Hakam ibn Ayyub ibn al-Hakam, to whom she was ultimately wed.[12][13] The Kitab al-aghani refers to Muhammad at the age of 17 as "the noblest Thaqafite of his time".[14] In the summation of Baloch, "Muhammad grew up under favourable conditions into an able, energetic and cultured lad of fine tastes".[15]

Governor of Fars

Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's first assignment was in the province

Jurjan near the Caspian Sea.[16]

Fars might have also had at this time some of the rebels leftover from the revolt of

Khurasan and returned to Iraq after the ruler had been changed.[21][22]

Background on Sindh

Early Muslim presence

Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 AD)

The connection between the Hindu Sind and

Battle of Camel and died fighting for Ali.[23] Harith ibn Murrah al-Abdi and Sayfi ibn Fasayl' al-Shaybani, both officers of Ali's army, attacked Makran in the year 658.[23] Sayfi was one of the seven shias who were beheaded alongside Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi in 660 AD near Damascus.[23] Under the Umayyads (661–750 AD), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees.[25]

Umayyad interest in Sindh

Map of expansion of Umayyad Caliphate

According to Wink,

Balochistan and Sindh regions.[26][28][29]

The Umayyad Caliphate on the eve of the invasions of Spain and Sindh in 710.

Also cited as a reason for this campaign was the policy of providing refuge to Sassanids fleeing the

Umayyad consolidation of their rule.[clarification needed
]

These Arabs were imprisoned later on by Governor Deebal Partaab Raye. A letter written by an Arab girl named Nahed who escaped from the prison of Partab Raye asked Hajjaj Bin Yusuf for help. When Hajjaj asked Dahir for the release of prisoners and compensation, the latter refused on the ground that he had no control over those. Al-Hajjaj sent Muhammad ibn al-Qasim for action against the Sindh in 711. [citation needed]

The

Umar bin Khattab, who upon receipt of reports of it being an inhospitable and poor land, had stopped further expeditionary ventures into the region.[citation needed
]

Conquest of valley of Sindh

Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's conquest of Sindh (711-715 CE).
  Desert areas (Registan Desert and Thar Desert)
  Zunbils
  Kingdom of Sindh (c. 632– 712 CE)
  Maitraka Kingdom (c.475–c.776 CE)

Hajjaj had put more care and planning into this campaign than the second campaign.

Jats and Meds as well as other irregulars who heard of the Arab successes in Sindh.[30] When Muhammad ibn al-Qasim passed through the Makran desert while raising his forces, he had to subdue the restive towns of Fannazbur and Arman Belah (Lasbela), both of which had previously been conquered by the Arabs.[31]

The first town assaulted in Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's Sindh campaign was

Thakore of Bhatta and the western Jats.[30]

At Aror (Rohri) Muhammad ibn al-Qasim was met by Dahir's forces and the eastern Jats in battle.[30] Dahir died in the battle, his forces were defeated and Muhammad ibn al-Qasim took control of Sindh.[30] In the wake of the battle enemy soldiers were executed, though artisans, merchants, and farmers were spared, and Dahir[clarification needed] and his chiefs, the "daughters of princes" and the usual fifth of the booty and slaves were sent to al-Hajjaj.[30]

Soon the capitals of the other provinces, Brahmanabad, Alor (Battle of Aror) and

Hindu religion.[11] Usually after a siege of a few weeks or months the Arabs gained a city through the intervention of heads of mercantile houses with whom subsequent treaties and agreements would be settled.[30] After battles all fighting men were executed and their wives and children enslaved in considerable numbers and the usual fifth of the booty and slaves were sent to al-Hajjaj.[30] The general populace was encouraged to carry on with their trades and taxes and tributes settled.[30]

The conquest of Sindh (and areas of

Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty and by the South Indian emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty in the early 8th century. After the failure of further expeditions on Kathiawar, the Arab chroniclers conceded that the Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–785) "gave up the project of conquering any part of India."[32]

Military and political strategy

The military strategy had been outlined by Al-Hajjaj in a letter sent to Muhammad ibn al-Qasim:[33]

My ruling is given: Kill anyone belonging to the ahl-i-harb (combatants); arrest their sons and daughters for hostages and imprison them. Whoever does not fight against us...grant them aman (peace and safety) and settle their tribute [amwal] as dhimmah (protected person)...

The Arabs' first concern was to facilitate the conquest of Sindh with the fewest casualties while also trying to preserve the economic infrastructure.[34] Towns were given two options: submit to Islamic authority peacefully or be attacked by force (anwattan), with the choice governing their treatment upon capture.[34] The capture of towns was usually accomplished by means of a treaty with a party from among the enemy, who were then extended special privileges and material rewards.[35] There were two types of such treaties, "Sulh" or "ahd-e-wasiq (capitulation)" and "aman (surrender/ peace)".[35] Among towns and fortresses that were captured through force of arms, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim performed executions of ahl-i-harb (fighting men) as part of his military strategy, whose surviving dependants were enslaved.[35]

Casualties

Where resistance was strong, prolonged, and intensive, often resulting in considerable Arab casualties, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's response was dramatic, inflicting 6,000 deaths at Aror (Rohri), between 6,000 and 26,000 at Brahmanabad, 4,000 at Iskalandah (Uch), and 6,000 at Multan.[36] Conversely, in areas taken by sulh, such as Armabil, Nirun, and Aror, resistance was light and few casualties occurred.[36] Sulh appeared to be Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's preferred mode of conquest, the method used for more than 60% of the towns and tribes recorded by al-Baladhuri and the Chach Nama.[36] At one point, he was actually berated by Al-Hajjaj for being too lenient.[36] Meanwhile, the common folk were often pardoned and encouraged to continue working;[35] Al-Hajjaj ordered that this option not be granted to any inhabitant of Debal, yet Muhammad ibn al-Qasim still bestowed it upon certain groups and individuals.[36]

Reasons for success

Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's success has been partly ascribed to Dahir being an unpopular Hindu king ruling over a

Meds.[37] Brahman, Buddhist, Greek, and Arab testimony however can be found that attests towards amicable relations between the adherents of the two religions up to the 7th century.[38]

Along with this were:

  1. Superior military equipment; such as
    siege engines and the Mongol bow.[28][39]
  2. Troop discipline and leadership.[28]
  3. The concept of Jihad as a morale booster.[28]
  4. Religion, i.e. the widespread belief in the prophecy of Muslim success.[28][38]
  5. The Samanis being persuaded to submit and not take up arms because the majority of the population was Buddhist who were dissatisfied with their rulers, who were Hindu.[38]
  6. The labouring under disabilities of the Lohana Jats.[38]
  7. Defections from among Dahir's chiefs and nobles.[38]

Administration of Sindh

Main article:
Caliphal province of Sind
Map of the Caliphal province of Sindh, a province of the Abbasid Caliphate, circa 750 CE.[40]

After the conquest, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's task was to set up an administrative structure for a stable Muslim state that incorporated a newly conquered alien land, inhabited by non-Muslims.

dihqans) were maintained.[41] A Muslim officer called an amil was stationed with a troop of cavalry to manage each town on a hereditary basis[41]

Everywhere taxes (mal) and tribute (

Brahmins.[28]

Incorporation of ruling elite into administration

During his administration, Hindus and Buddhists were inducted into the administration as trusted advisors and governors.[28] A Hindu, Kaksa, was at one point the second most important member of his administration.[42] Dahir's prime minister and various chieftains were also incorporated into the administration.[43]

Clashes with the Jats

Significant medieval

Jats and forces of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim.[44]

Religion

Lane-Poole writes that, "as a rule Muslim government was at once tolerant and economic".[45] The preference of collection of jizya over the conversion to Islam is a major economic motivator.[46][47] Hindus and Buddhists who were classified as Dhimmis had to pay mandatory Jizya instead of Zakat paid by Muslims.[48][49] Contrastingly preferential treatment was given to a small number of people who were converted to Islam by "exempting them from Jizya in lieu of paying the Zakat".[41] Muhammad ibn al-Qasim fixed the Zakat at 10% of the agricultural produce.[50] have to pay the mandatory jizya.[51][52][53] "In Al-Biruni's narrative", according to Manan Ahmed Asif – a historian of Islam in South and South East Asia, "Muhammad bin Qasim first asserts the superiority of Islam over the polytheists by committing a taboo (killing a cow) and publicly soiling the idol (giving the cow meat as an offering)" before allowing the temple to continue as a place of worship.[54]

A religious Islamic office, "sadru-I-Islam al affal", was created to oversee the secular governors.[41] The native hereditary elites were reappointed with the title of Rana. According to Yohanan Friedmann, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim declared that the Brahmins of Brahmanabad were good people.[50]

While

Sun Temple of Multan on payment of jizya.[55] In the Arab settlers controlled areas of Sindh and Multan, conversion to Islam occurred only slowly, not on a massive scale.[56] Majority of the population continued to remain Hindu who had to pay the jizya imposed by the Muslim state.[56]

It has been reported that Muhammad ibn al-Qasim met with Sayyida Ruqayya bint Ali, a daughter of Ali ibn Abi Talib.[57]

Death

Al-Hajjaj died in 714, followed a year later by Caliph al-Walid I, who was succeeded by his brother Sulayman. The latter took revenge against the generals and officials who had been close to al-Hajjaj. Sulayman owed political support to al-Hajjaj's opponents and so recalled both of al-Hajjaj's successful generals Qutayba ibn Muslim, the conqueror of Transoxiana (Central Asia) and Muhammad. He also appointed the son of the distinguished general al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra, Yazid, who was once imprisoned and tortured by al-Hajjaj, as the governor of Fars, Kirman, Makran, and Sind; he immediately placed Muhammad in chains.[58]

Muhammad ibn al-Qasim died on 18 July 715 in Mosul which is a part of the modern-day Iraq. Some sources say that his body was transferred to Makran in Balochistan at the Hingol National Park which is part of modern-day Pakistan.

There are two different accounts regarding the details of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's fate:

  • According to al-Baladhuri Muhammad was killed due to a family feud with the governor of Iraq. Sulayman was hostile toward Muhammad because apparently, he had followed the order of Hajjaj to declare Sulayman's right of succession void in all territories conquered by him. When Muhammad received the news of the death of al-Hajjaj he returned to Aror. Muhammad was later arrested under the orders of the Caliph by the replacement governor of Sindh, Yazid ibn Abi Kabsha al-Saksaki, who worked under the new military governor of Iraq, Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, and the new fiscal governor, the mawla Salih ibn Abd al-Rahman. Salih, whose brother was executed by al-Hajjaj, tortured Muhammad and his relatives to death. The account of his death by al-Baladhuri is brief compared to the one in the Chach Nama.[28][59][60]
  • The Chach Nama narrates a tale in which Muhammad's demise is attributed to the daughters of Dahir, Surya Devi and Parimal Devi, who had been taken captive during the campaign. Upon capture their mother had been made a slave of Muhammad himself,[61] while the two sisters had been sent on as presents to the Caliph for his harem in the capital Baghdad (however Baghdad had not yet been built and the actual capital was Damascus). The account relates that they then tricked the Caliph into believing that Muhammad had violated them before sending them on and as a result of this subterfuge, Muhammad was wrapped and stitched in oxen hides,[62] and sent to Syria, which resulted in his death en route from suffocation.[63] This narrative attributes their motive for this subterfuge to securing vengeance for their father's death. Upon discovering this subterfuge, the Caliph is recorded to have been filled with remorse and ordered the sisters buried alive in a wall.[38][59][64]

Aftermath

After Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's departure, the next appointed Arab governor died on arrival. Dahir's son recaptured Brahmanabad and c. 720, he was granted pardon and included in the administration in return for converting to Islam. Soon, however, he recanted and split off when the Umayyads were embroiled in a succession crisis. Later,

Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri
killed Jaisiah and recaptured the territory before his successors once again struggled to hold and keep it.

Arab states in South Asia

During the

Fatimid state.[28][65] The Arab conquest remained checked in what is now the south of Pakistan for three centuries by powerful Hindu monarchs to the north and east until the arrival of Mahmud of Ghazni.[66]

Controversy

There is controversy regarding the conquest and subsequent conversion of Sindh. This is usually voiced in two antagonistic perspectives viewing Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's actions.[67]

His conquest, as described by Stanley Lane-Poole, in Medieval India (Published in 1970 by Haskell House Publishers Ltd), was "liberal". He imposed the customary poll tax, took hostages for good conduct and spared peoples' lives and lands. He even left their shrines undesecrated: 'The temples;' he proclaimed, 'shall be inviolate, like the churches of the Christians, the synagogues of the Jews and altars of the Magians'.[68] In the same text, however, it is mentioned that "Occasional desecration of Hindu fanes took place... but such demonstrations were probably rare sops to the official conscience...", as destruction of temples and civilian massacres still took place.[69]

  1. Coercive conversion has been attributed to early historians such as Elliot, Cousens, Majumdar and Vaidya.[36] They hold the view that the conversion of Sindh was necessitated. Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's numerical inferiority is said to explain any instances of apparent religious toleration, with the destruction of temples seen as a reflection of the more basic, religiously motivated intolerance.[36]
  2. Voluntary conversion has been attributed to Thomas W. Arnold and modern Muslim historians such as Habib and Qureishi. They believe that the conquest was largely peaceful, and the conversion entirely so, and that the Arab forces enacted liberal, generous and tolerant policies.[36] These historians mention the "praiseworthy conduct of Arab Muslims" and attribute their actions to a "superior civilizational complex".[70]

Various polemical perceptions of Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism are also reflected in this debate.[71] The period of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's rule has been called by U.T. Thakkur "the darkest period in Sindh history", with the records speaking of massive forced conversions, temple destruction, slaughters and genocides; the people of Sindh, described as inherently pacifist due to their Hindu/Buddhist religious inclinations, had to adjust to the conditions of "barbarian inroad".[72] On one extreme, the Arab Muslims are seen as being compelled by religious stricture to conquer and forcibly convert Sindh, but on the other hand, they can be seen as being respectful and tolerant of non-Muslims as part of their religious duty, with conversion being facilitated by the vitality, equality and morals of the Islamic religion.[71] Citations of towns taken either violently or bloodlessly, reading back into Arab Sindh information belonging to a later date and dubious accounts such as those of the forcible circumcision of Brahmins at Debal or Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's consideration of Hindu sentiment in forbidding the slaughter of cows are used as examples for one particular view or the other.[71]

Some historians strike a middle ground, saying that Muhammad ibn al-Qasim was torn between the political expediency of making peace with the Hindus and Buddhists; having to call upon non-Muslims to serve under him as part of his mandate to administer newly conquered land; and orthodoxy by refraining from seeking the co-operation of "infidels". It is contended that he may have struck a middle ground, conferring the status of Dhimmi upon the native Sindhis and permitting them to participate in his administration, but treating them as "non-citizens" (i.e. in the Caliphate, but not of it).[41]

While Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's warring was clearly at times brutal, he is supposed to have said of Hinduism that 'the idol temple is similar to the churches of the Christians, (to the synagogues) of the Jews and to the

Zoroastrians' (mā al-budd illā ka-kanāʾis al-naṣārā wa ’l-yahūd wa-buyūt nīrān al-madjūs).[73] This 'seems to be the earliest statement justifying the inclusion of the Hindus in the category of ahl al-dhimma, leading Muhammad to be viewed by many modern Muslims as a paragon of religious tolerance.[74]

Legacy

Muhammad ibn al-Qasim Mosque in Sukkur, Pakistan, dedicated to the leader.

Muhammad ibn al-Qasim's presence and rule was very brief. His conquest for the Umayyads brought Sindh into the orbit of the Muslim world.

Sufi missionaries to expand Muslim influence.[76]

From

Pakistan Studies curriculum.[78] Yom-e Bab ul-Islam is observed in Pakistan, in honour of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim.[79][78]

Port Qasim, Pakistan's second major port, is named in honor of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim.[80] Bagh Ibn Qasim is the largest park in Karachi (Sindh, Pakistan), named in honour of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim. Ibn-e-Qasim Bagh Stadium, Multan is a multi-use stadium named after Muhammad ibn al-Qasim. The Pakistan Naval Station Qasim, or PNS Qasim, is the major naval special operations base for the Amphibious Special Operations Forces in the Pakistan Navy named after Muhammad ibn al-Qasim. Bin Qasim Town in Karachi is named after Muhammad ibn al-Qasim.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Indus River during this time flowed to the east of Nerun, but a 10th-century earthquake caused the river to change to its course

References

  1. ^ a b c d Gabrieli 1965, p. 281.
  2. ^ Gabrieli 1965, pp. 281–282.
  3. ^ Baloch 1953, p. 244.
  4. ^ a b c Gabrieli 1965, p. 282.
  5. ^ Lecker 2000, p. 432.
  6. ^ a b c d Baloch 1953, p. 243.
  7. ^ Baloch 1953, pp. 243–244.
  8. ^ Baloch 1953, p. 244, note 11.
  9. ^ a b c d Baloch 1953, p. 245.
  10. ^ a b Baloch 1953, pp. 245–246.
  11. ^ a b c d Friedmann 1993, p. 405.
  12. ^ Gabrieli 1965, p. 283.
  13. ^ Baloch 1953, p. 247.
  14. ^ Gabrieli 1965, pp. 282–283.
  15. ^ Baloch 1953, p. 246.
  16. ^
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  17. ISBN 9789694020457
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  21. ^ History of al-Tabari Vol. 39, pp. 228, under "Those Who Died in the Year 111", State University of New York Press, (1998).
  22. ^ Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani, "Tahdhib al-Tahdhib", Volume 7, pp 226, narrator no. 413.
  23. ^ a b c d MacLean1989, p. 126
  24. ^ S. A. A. Rizvi, "A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Volo. 1, pp. 138, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).
  25. ^ S. A. N. Rezavi, "The Shia Muslims", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).
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  27. ^ Wink 2002, pp. 51–52
  28. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Nicholas F. Gier, From Mongols to Mughals: Religious violence in India 9th-18th centuries, Presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May 2006.
  29. ^ Shoeb, Robina (2016). "Female Sufism in Pakistan: A Case Study of Bibi Pak Daman". Pakistan Vision. 17 (1): 229. But this version of the story is almost absent and not accepted by many historians, because Muhammad bin Qasim attacked Sindh to punish the then ruler of Sindh Raja Dahir who captured some Muslim women, and to release them he attacked Sindh.
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Wink 2002, pp. 201–205
  31. ^ Wink 2002, p. 131
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  37. ^ "The fall of Multan laid the Indus valley at the feet of the conqueror. The tribes came in, 'ringing bells and beating drums and dancing,' in token of welcome. The Hindu rulers had oppressed them heavily, and the Jats and Meds and other tribes were on the side of the invaders. The work of conquest, as often happened in India, was thus aided by the disunion of the inhabitants, and jealousies of race and creed conspired to help the Muslims. To such suppliants, Mohammad Qasim gave the liberal terms that the Arabs usually offered to all but inveterate foes. He imposed the customary poll tax, took hostages for good conduct, and spared the people's lands and lives. He even left their shrines undesecrated: 'The temples,' he proclaimed, 'shall be inviolate, like the churches of the Christians, the synagogues of the Jews, and the altars of the Magians.'" Stanley Lane-Poole, Medieval India under Mohammedan Rule, 712-1764, G.P. Putnam's Sons. New York, 1970. p. 9-10
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  43. ^ The Chach-Nama. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979. Online version. Retrieved 3 October 2006
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  46. ^ Habib Tiliouine, Richard J. Estes, 2016, "The State of Social Progress of Islamic Societies", Springer, page 338.
  47. ^ John Powell, 2010, "Weapons & Warfare: Warfare : culture and concepts", Salem Press, page 884.
  48. ^ (Quran 9:29) “Fight those who do not believe in Allah or in the Last Day and who do not consider unlawful what Allah and His Messenger have made unlawful and who do not adopt the religion of truth from those who were given the Scripture - [fight] until they give the jizyah willingly while they are humbled.”
  49. ^ (Sahih Bukhari Volume 4 Chapter 88) Narrated Ibn Umar that the Prophet said, "My livelihood is under the shade of my spear, and he who disobeys my orders will be humiliated by paying Jizya."
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  56. ^ a b Mohammad Yunus, Aradhana Parmar, 2003, "South Asia: A Historical Narrative", Oxford University Press, page 123.
  57. ^ Shoeb, Robina (2016). "Female Sufism in Pakistan: A Case Study of Bibi Pak Daman". Pakistan Vision. 17 (1): 225–229.
  58. ^ Wink 2002, p. 53
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Bibliography

External links
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