Mujahideen

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Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Mujahid (disambiguation) and Mujahideen (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Mujaddid.

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Mujahideen, or Mujahidin (

Arabic: مُجَاهِد, romanized: mujāhid, lit. 'strugglers or strivers, doers of jihād'), an Arabic term that broadly refers to people who engage in jihad (lit. 'struggle or striving [for justice, right conduct, Godly rule, etc.]'), interpreted in a jurisprudence of Islam as the fight on behalf of God, religion or the community (ummah).[1][2][3]

The widespread use of the word in English began with reference to the guerrilla-type militant groups led by the

jihadist groups in various countries.[2][4]

Early history

Further information: Islamic revival, Islamism, and Mahdist War

In its roots, the Arabic word mujahideen refers to any person performing jihad.[1][2][3] In its post-classical meaning, jihad refers to an act that is spiritually comparable in reward to promoting Islam during the early 600s CE. These acts could be as simple as sharing a considerable amount of one's income with the poor.

Modern Western definition

The term continued to be used throughout India for Muslim resistance to

British colonial rule.[1] During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, these holy warriors were said to accept any deserting Indian sepoys and recruit them into their ranks. As time went by, the sect grew ever larger until it was not only conducting bandit raids but even controlling areas in Afghanistan.[5]

The first known use of the word mujahideen to refer to insurgent Islamic extremism (what has neologically been called

Thomas Patrick Hughes (1838–1911).[3][6]

In

Tsarism and Bolshevism and were referred to by the Soviets as basmachi ('bandits'). These groups called themselves mojahed, describing themselves as standing for Islam.[7][8] Other proto-mujahideen include Usman dan Fodio,[9] Jahangir Khoja,[10] and Muhammad Ahmed Al Mahdi.[11][12][13]

Cold War era

The modern phenomenon of

defensive) as the casus belli
for insurgencies, guerrilla warfare, and international terrorism, originated in the 20th century and draws on early-to-mid-20th century.

The name was most closely associated, however, with the mujahideen in Afghanistan.[1], a coalition of guerrilla groups in Afghanistan that opposed the invading Soviet forces and eventually toppled the Afghan communist government during the Afghan War (1978–92). Rival factions thereafter fell out among themselves, precipitating the rise of the Taliban and the opposing Northern Alliance. Like the term jihad—to which it is lexicographically connected—the name has been used rather freely, both in the press and by Islamic militants themselves, and often has been used to refer to any Muslim groups engaged in hostilities with non-Muslims or even with secularized Muslim regimes.[citation needed]

Afghanistan

Main article: Afghan mujahideen
See also:
Afghanistan conflict (1978–present) and Tehran Eight
Afghan mujahideen fighters passing around the Durand Line border in 1985
U.S. President Reagan meeting with Afghan mujahideen at the White House in 1983.

Arguably the best-known mujahideen outside the

tribal groups, particularly in isolated areas among the mountains.[14] Eventually, the seven main mujahideen parties allied as the political bloc called Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen
. However the parties were not under a single command and had ideological differences.

Many Muslims from other countries assisted the various mujahideen groups in Afghanistan. Some groups of these veterans became significant players in later conflicts in and around the Muslim world.

Maktab al-Khadamat funnelled money, arms, and Muslim fighters from around the Muslim world into Afghanistan, with the assistance and support of the Saudi and Pakistani governments.[citation needed] These foreign fighters became known as "Afghan Arabs" and their efforts were coordinated by Abdullah Yusuf Azzam
.

Although the mujahideen were aided by the Pakistani, American, British, Chinese and Saudi governments, the mujahideen's primary source of funding was private donors and religious charities throughout the Muslim world—particularly in the Persian Gulf. Jason Burke recounts that "as little as 25% of the money for the Afghan jihad was actually supplied directly by states."[15]

Mujahideen forces caused serious casualties to the Soviet forces, and made the war very costly for the Soviet Union. In 1989 the Soviet Union

Battle of Jalalabad in March 1989.[16][17][18][19]

In 1992 the DRA's last president,

Peshawar Accords. However, the mujahideen could not establish a functional united government, and many of the larger mujahideen groups began to fight each other over power in Kabul
.

After several years of devastating fighting, in a small

Pashto), referring to how most Taliban had grown up in refugee camps in Pakistan during the 1980s and were taught in the Saudi-backed Wahhabi madrassas
, religious schools known for teaching a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam.

Cyprus

Even before independence, the

Turkish Cypriot Security Force. In 1974, Turkey led a land invasion of Northern Cyprus with the aim of protecting the Turkish minority population after a Greek-inspired coup brought a threat of union of the island with Greece. Since then there has been no major fighting on Cyprus and the nation continues to be an independent country, though strongly linked with Turkey militarily and politically.[20][21]

Iran and Iraq

While more than one group in Iran has called itself mujahideen, the most famous is the

1979 Iranian Revolution
.

Another mujahideen was the Mujahedin-e Islam, an Islamic party led by Ayatollah

oil nationalization, but broke away from Mosaddeq over his allegedly un-Islamic policies.[23]

Myanmar (Burma)

From 1947 to 1961, local mujahideen fought against Burmese government soldiers in an attempt to have the Mayu peninsula in northern Arakan, Burma (present-day Rakhine State, Myanmar) secede from the country, so it could be annexed by East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh).[24] During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the mujahideen lost most of their momentum and support, resulting in most of them surrendering to government forces.[25][26]

In the 1990s, the well-armed Rohingya Solidarity Organisation was the main perpetrator of attacks on Burmese authorities positioned on the Bangladesh–Myanmar border.[27]

Philippines

Main articles:
Islamic insurgency in the Philippines and Moro Islamic Liberation Front

In 1969, political tensions and open hostilities developed between the Government of the Philippines and jihadist rebel groups.[28] The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) was established by University of the Philippines professor Nur Misuari to condemn the killings of more than 60 Filipino Muslims and later became an aggressor against the government while the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), a splinter group from the MNLF, was established to seek an Islamic state within the Philippines and is more radical and more aggressive. The conflict is ongoing[when?]; casualty statistics vary for the conflict however the conservative estimates of the Uppsala Conflict Data Program indicate that at least 6,015 people were killed in armed conflict between the Government of Philippines and ASG, BIFM, MILF, and MNLF factions between 1989 and 2012.[29] Abu Sayyaf is an Islamic separatist group in the southern Philippines, formed in 1991. The group is known for its kidnappings of Western nationals and Filipinos, for which it has received several large ransom-payments. Some Abu Sayyaf members have studied or worked in Saudi Arabia and developed relations with the mujahideen members while fighting and training in the war against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.[30]

1990s

The 1990s are a transitional period between the Mujahideen outfits forming part of the

War on Terror" and the "Arab Spring
".

Al-Qaeda saw its formative period during this time, and jihadism formed part of the picture in regional conflicts of the 1990s, including the Yugoslav Wars, the Somali Civil War, the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, the First Chechen War, etc.

Yugoslav Wars

Main articles: Bosnian mujahideen and Bosnian War

During the Bosnian war 1992–1995, many foreign Muslims came to

Palestinian Territories; to quote the summary of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia judgment:[37]

The evidence shows that foreign volunteers arrived in central Bosnia in the second half of 1992 with the aim of helping Muslims. Mostly they came from

Bosnian Army's 3rd Corps
, appointed Mahmut Karalić (Commandant), Asim Koričić (Chief of Staff) and Amir Kubura (Assistant Chief for Operational and Curricula) to lead the group.

Some of the mujahideen funnelled arms and money into the country which Bosnia direly needed due to a

Salafi sect, which contrasted sharply with the relatively secular society of Bosnian Muslims
. This led to friction between the mujahideen and the Bosnians.

Foreign volunteers in Bosnia have been accused of committing

war crimes during the conflict. However, the ICTY has never issued indictments against mujahideen fighters. Instead, the ICTY indicted some Bosnian Army commanders on the basis of superior criminal responsibility. The ICTY acquitted Amir Kubura and Enver Hadžihasanović of the Bosnian 3rd Corps of all charges related to the incidents involving mujahideen. Furthermore, the Appeals Chamber noted that the relationship between the 3rd Corps and the El Mujahedin detachment was not one of subordination but was instead close to overt hostility since the only way to control the detachment was to attack them as if they were a distinct enemy force.[38]

The ICTY Trial Chamber convicted

Rasim Delic, the former chief of the Bosnian Army General Staff. The ICTY found that Delic had effective control over the El Mujahid Detachment. He was sentenced to three years of imprisonment for his failure to prevent or punish the cruel treatment of twelve captured Serb soldiers by the Mujahideen. Delic remained in the Detention Unit while appellate proceedings continued.[39]

Some individuals of the Bosnian Mujahideen, such as

Islamic Fundamentalist
groups before and after the Bosnian War.

In 2015, former Human Rights Minister and Federation BiH Vice President Mirsad Kebo talked about numerous war crimes committed against Serbs by mujahideen in Bosnia and their links with current and past Muslim officials including former and current presidents of federation and presidents of parliament based on war diaries and other documented evidence. He gave evidence to the BiH federal prosecutor.[40][41][42][43]

North Caucasus

Main article: Insurgency in the North Caucasus
Further information:
Islamic International Brigade

The term mujahideen has often been used to refer to all separatist fighters in the case of the First and Second Chechen Wars. However, in this article, mujahideen is used to refer to the foreign, non-Caucasian fighters who joined the separatists’ cause for the sake of Jihad. They are often called Ansaar (helpers) in related literature dealing with this conflict to prevent confusion with the native fighters.

Foreign mujahideen have played a part in both Chechen wars. After the

al-Haramein
, they soon became an invaluable source of funds for the Chechen resistance, which had few resources of its own.

Most of the mujahideen decided to remain in

incursion into Dagestan
, where they suffered a decisive defeat and were forced to retreat back into Chechnya. The incursion provided the new Russian government with a pretext for intervention. Russian ground forces invaded Chechnya again in 1999.

The separatists were less successful in the Second Chechen War. Russian officials claimed that the separatists had been defeated as early as 2002. The Russians also succeeded in killing the most prominent mujahideen commanders, most notably Ibn al-Khattab and Abu al-Walid.

Although the region has since been far from stable, separatist activity has decreased, though some foreign fighters remain active in Chechnya. In the last months of 2007, the influence of foreign fighters became apparent again when

Caucasian Mujahadeen, a pan-Caucasian Islamic state of which Chechnya was to be a province. This move caused a rift in the resistance movement between those supporting the Emirate and those who were in favour of preserving the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria
.

Contemporary Jihadism

Further information: Jihadism

The neologism

jihadists may correspond to the original Arabic mujahedeen.[44][45]

Indian subcontinent

Further information:
War in North-West Pakistan

In

Students Islamic Movement of India, or SIMI, a radical Islamist movement with aim to establish Islamic rule over India.[46] In the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, Kashmiri Muslim separatists opposing Indian rule are often known as mujahideen. The members of the Salafi movement (within Sunni Islam) in the south Indian state of Kerala is known as "Mujahids".[47]

Many militant groups have been involved in the war in North West Pakistan, most notably the

Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF), Hizbul Mujahideen and Harkat-ul-Mujahideen (HuM).[48] A 1996 report by Human Rights Watch estimated the number of active mujahideen at 3,200.[49]

In

detonated 500 bombs at 300 locations throughout Bangladesh.[50]

Iraq and Syria

Iraqi insurgency

Main articles:
Iraqi insurgency (Iraq War)

The term mujahideen is sometimes applied to fighters who joined the insurgency after the

Mujahideen Army
.

Following the U.S. invasion of Iraq as part of the George W. Bush administration's post 9/11 foreign policy, many foreign Mujahideen joined several Sunni militant groups resisting the U.S. occupation of Iraq. A considerable part of the insurgents did not come from Iraq but instead from many other Arab countries, notably Jordan and Saudi Arabia.[51] Among these recruits was Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a Jordanian national who would go on to assume the leadership of Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI).

Syrian civil war

Main articles:
Islamic State in Iraq and Syria

Various Islamic groups, often referred to as mujahideen and jihadists, have participated in the

jihadist organizations and their affiliates have been anti-Assad. Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012.[52] In May 2012, Syria's U.N. envoy Bashar Ja'afari declared that dozens of foreign fighters from Libya, Tunisia, Egypt, Britain, France elsewhere had been captured or killed, and urged Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Turkey to stop "their sponsorship of the armed rebellion".[53][54] Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012.[52] In June, it was reported that hundreds of foreign fighters, many linked to al-Qaeda, had gone to Syria to fight against Assad.[55] When asked if the United States would arm the opposition, Hillary Clinton expressed doubts that such weapons would be effective in the toppling of the Syrian government and may even fall into the hands of al-Qaeda or Hamas.[56]

American officials assumed already in 2012 that

al-Qaeda in Iraq were seeking refuge in Syria and moving there to fight.[60]

It is believed that al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri condemned Assad.[61]

A member of the Abdullah Azzam Brigades in Lebanon admitted that his group had sent fighters to Syria. On 12 November 2018, the United States closed its financial system to an Iraqi named, Shibl Muhsin 'Ubayd Al-Zaydi and others over concerns that they were sending Iraqi fighters to Syria and financial support to other Hezbollah activities in the region.[62]

Israel

The

Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO) by the U.S. Department of State.[63]

On 12 November 2018, the Department of State blacklisted the Al-Mujahidin Brigades (AMB) over its alleged Hezbollah associations, as well as Jawad Nasrallah, son of Lebanon’s Iran-backed Hezbollah leader Sayyed Hassan Nasrallah, from using the United States financial system and further naming him a terrorist associated with evidence of his involvement in attacks against Israel in the West Bank.[64] It had been reported in Israel that the AMB was formerly linked to the Fatah rather than the Hamas organization.[65]

Africa

Nigeria

sharia law
across Nigeria.

Somalia

Main articles: Somali Civil War and Al-Shabaab (militant group)
Al-Shabaab militants made gains (2009–10) in guerrilla-style attacks

The currently active jihadist groups in Somalia derive from the Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya group active during the 1990s.

In July 2006, a Web-posted message purportedly written by Osama bin Laden urged Somalis to build an

post-ICU resistance
against the Ethiopians and the TFG.

Harakat al-Shabaab Mujahideen is said to have non-Somali foreigners in its ranks, particularly among its leadership.

Nile River flow by destabilizing Ethiopia.[72][73] Similarly, recent media reports said that Egyptian and Arab jihadists were the core members of Al-Shabaab, and were training Somalis in sophisticated weaponry and suicide bombing techniques.[74]

Chinese ban

In April 2017, the government of China prohibited parents from choosing the name Mujahid as the given name for a child. The list included more than two dozen names (including Muhammad) and was targeted at the 10 million Uyghurs in the western region of Xinjiang as part of the persecution of Uyghurs in China.[75]

See also

References

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