Mukhannath
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Mukhannath (مُخَنَّث; plural mukhannathun (مُخَنَّثون); "effeminate ones", "ones who resemble women") was a term used in
In later eras, the term mukhannath was associated with the
Etymology
The origins of the term mukhannath in
Mentions in the ḥadīth literature
Mukhannathun already existed in
Various ḥadīth state that Muhammad cursed the mukhannathun and their female equivalents, mutarajjilat, and ordered his followers to remove them from their homes.[7][8] One such incident in the ḥadīth was prompted by a mukhannath servant of Muhammad's wife Umm Salama commenting upon the body of a woman, which may have convinced Muhammad that the mukhannathun were only pretending to have no interest in women, and therefore could not be trusted around them.[9]
Early Islamic historiographical works rarely comment upon the habits of the mukhannathun. It seems there may have been some variance in how "effeminate" they were, though there are indications that some adopted aspects of feminine dress or at least ornamentation. One hadith states that a Muslim mukhannath who had dyed his hands and feet with henna (traditionally a feminine activity) was banished from Medina, but not killed for his behavior.[10] Other ḥadīth also mention the punishment of banishment, both in connection with Umm Salama's servant and a man who worked as a musician. Muhammad described the musician as a mukhannath and threatened to banish him if he did not end his unacceptable career.[1]
Role in later eras
In the
There are few
Some modern scholars of Islamic studies believe that Ṭuwais and other mukhannathun musicians formed an intermediary stage in the social class most associated with musical performance: women in pre-Islamic Arabia, mukhannathun in the Rashidun and early Umayyad caliphates, and mainly non-mukhannath men in later time periods.[1] While many still disapproved of the mukhannathun in general in this era, the musicians among them were nonetheless valued and prized for their skill.[15] Some of the more well-known mukhannathun also served as go-betweens and matchmakers for men and women.[15]
While Ṭuwais is typically described as the leading mukhannath musician of Medina during his lifetime, historical sources describe others who served a similar role providing musical and poetic entertainment. A man who was known by the Arabic name al-Dalāl ("the Coquettish") is mentioned as one of Ṭuwais' pupils. He is portrayed as a witty but sometimes crude man who "loved women" but did not have sex with them. Unlike Ṭuwais, some tales involving al-Dalāl do suggest that he was attracted to men.[1]
Persecution and decline
While sporadic persecution of mukhannathun dates back to the time of Muhammad, their large-scale governmental persecution began in the Umayyad caliphate. According to
Some Islamic literary sources associate the beginning of severe persecution with Marwān I ibn al-Ḥakam, fourth caliph of the Umayyad caliphate, and his brother Yaḥyā, who served as a governor under the caliph ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān, while other sources put it in the time of ʿAbd al-Malik's son, al-Walīd I ibn ʿAbd al-Malik. The governor of Mecca serving under al-Walīd I is said to have “issued a proclamation against the mukhannathun”, in addition to other singers and drinkers of wine. Two mukhannathun musicians named Ibn Surayj and al-Gharīḍ are specifically referred to as being impacted by this proclamation, with al-Gharīḍ fleeing to Yemen and never returning back.[1] Like al-Dalāl, al-Gharīḍ is portrayed as not just "effeminate" but homosexual in some sources. Beyond these two singers, relatively little is known of the mukhannathun of Mecca, compared to the more well-known group in Medina.[1]
The most severe instance of persecution is typically dated to the time of al-Walīd I's brother and successor Sulaymān ibn ʿAbd al-Malik, seventh caliph of the Umayyad caliphate. According to several variants of this story, the caliph ordered the full castration of the mukhannathun of Medina. Some versions of the tale say that all of them were forced to undergo the procedure, while others state that only a few of them were; in the latter case, al-Dalāl is almost always included as one of the castrated mukhannathun.[1]
Some variants of the story add a series of witticisms supposedly uttered by the mukhannathun prior to their castration:
Ṭuwais: "This is simply a circumcision which we must undergo again."
- al-Dalal: "Or rather the Greater Circumcision!"
- Nasim al-Sahar ("Breeze of the Dawn"): "With castration I have become a mukhannath in truth!"
- Nawmat al-Duha: "Or rather we have become women in truth!"
- Bard al-Fu'ad: "We have been spared the trouble of carrying around a spout for urine."
- Zillal-Shajar ("Shade Under the Trees"): "What would we do with an unused weapon, anyway?"[15]
After this event, the mukhannathun of Medina begin to fade from historical sources, and the next generation of singers and musicians had few mukhannathun in their ranks. Rowson states that though many details of the stories of their castration were undoubtedly invented, “this silence supports the assumption that they did suffer a major blow sometime around the caliphate of Sulayman.”[1]
By the days of the Abbasid caliph
Religious opinions
The 8th-century Muslim scholar
Early Muslim scholars like Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī stated that all mukhannathun must make an effort to cease their feminine behavior, but if this proved impossible, they were not worthy of punishment. Those who made no effort to become less "effeminate", or seemed to "take pleasure in (his effeminacy)", were worthy of blame. By this era, mukhannath had developed its association with homosexuality, and Badr al-Dīn al-ʿAynī saw homosexuality as "a more heinous extension of takhannuth", or effeminate behavior.[1]
Ibn ʿAbd al-Bāŕr stated that mukhannathun in his era were "known to be promiscuous", and resembled women in "softness, speech, appearance, accent and thinking". These mukhannathun were the ones initially allowed to be the servants of women, as they did not demonstrate any physical attraction to the female body.[16][non-primary source needed]
Modern views
While sometimes classified as
In the late 1980s, Mufti
In some regions of South Asia such as India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, the hijras are officially recognized as a third gender that is neither male nor female,[19] a concept that some have compared to mukhannathun.[6]
See also
- Hijra
- Khanith
- Third gender
- Transgender rights in Iran
- Transgender rights in Pakistan
- Transgender rights in Syria
- Transgender rights in Turkey
- Two-Spirit
References
Notes
- trans woman is mukhannith as they want to change their biological sex characters, while mukhannath presumably do not/have not. The mukhannath or effeminate man is obviously male, but naturally behaves like a female, unlike the khuntha, an intersex person, who could be either male or female."[3]
Citations
- ^ S2CID 163738149. Archived from the original(PDF) on 1 October 2008. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
- ^ S2CID 152120329.
- ^ S2CID 225679841.
- ^ from the original on 2021-11-09. Retrieved 2021-11-09.
- ^ ISBN 9780415185721.
- ^ from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2021.
- ISBN 9781316516713.
- ISBN 9781452905563.
- ^ a b Rowson, Everett K. "Gender Irregularity as Entertainment". Gender and difference in the Middle Ages. pp. 56–57.
- S2CID 153949304.
- ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6.
- ISBN 9780520047785.
- ISBN 9780313310737.
In pre-Islamic Arabia, music was practiced mainly by women, especially by singing girls (qainat)
- ^ Touma, Habib (1975). The Music of the Arabs. pp. 8, 135.
- ^ ISBN 9780520957978.
- ^ al-Maqdīsī, Ibn Qudamah. Al-Mughni wa al-Sharh al Kabeer. pp. 7/463.
- ^ Hamedani, Ali (5 November 2014). "The gay people pushed to change their gender". BBC Persian. Archived from the original on 6 November 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
- ^ Barford, Vanessa. "Iran's 'diagnosed transsexuals'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2012-03-15. Retrieved 2021-09-01.
- S2CID 5372595.
Bibliography
- Rehman, Javaid; Polymenopoulou, Eleni (2013). "Is Green a Part of the Rainbow? Sharia, Homosexuality, and LGBT Rights in the Muslim World" (PDF). from the original on 21 July 2018. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
- S2CID 170880292.