Multinucleate
Multinucleate
Although not normally viewed as a case of multinucleation, plant cells share a common cytoplasm by plasmodesmata, and most cells in animal tissues are in communication with their neighbors via gap junctions.[2]
Multinucleate cells, depending on the mechanism by which they are formed, can be divided into
A number of dinoflagellates are known to have two nuclei. Unlike other multinucleated cells these nuclei contain two distinct lineages of DNA: one from the dinoflagellate and the other from a symbiotic diatom.[6]
Some bacteria, such as Mycoplasma pneumoniae, a pathogen of the respiratory tract, may display multinuclear filaments as a result of a delay between genome replication and cellular division.[7]
Terminology
Some biologists use the term "acellular" to refer to multinucleate cell forms (syncitia and plasmodia), such as to differentiate "acellular" slime molds from the purely "cellular" ones (which do not form such structures).[8][9][10] This usage is incorrect and highly misleading to laymen, and as such it is strongly discouraged.
Some use the term "syncytium" in a wide sense, to mean any type of multinucleate cell,[11] while others differentiate the terms for each type.[12]
Physiological examples
Syncytia
Syncytia are multinuclear cells that can form either through normal biological processes, such as the mammalian placenta, or under the influence of certain pathogens, such as
Osteoclasts are multinuclear cells that are found commonly in the human body that aid in the maintenance and repair of the bones by secreting acid that dissolves bone matter. They are typically found to have 5 nuclei per cell, due to the fusion of preosteoclasts.
The
Placenta
The placenta, a temporary organ that transports nutrients, oxygen, waste, and other materials between a mother and a developing fetus, is partially composed of a syncytial layer that forms the interface between the foetus and the mother.[18] In addition to performing simple interface duties, the placental syncytia also acts as a barrier to infection from viruses, bacteria, and protozoa, which is likely due to unique cytoskeletal properties of these cells.[18]
Coenocytes
Furthermore, multinucleate cells are produced from specialized
Pathological examples
Multinucleated cells can also occur under pathological conditions as the consequence of a disturbed
Human Immunodeficiency Virus
As previously mentioned, syncytia may be induced through the actions of Human Immunodeficiency Virus, where
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