Music video
A music video is a
While musical short films were popular as soon as recorded sound was introduced to theatrical film screenings in the 1920s, the music video rose to prominence in the 1980s when American pay-TV channel MTV based its format around the medium.
Music videos use a wide range of styles and contemporary video-making techniques, including animation, live-action, documentary, and non-narrative approaches such as abstract film. Combining these styles and techniques has become more popular due to the variety for the audience. Many music videos interpret images and scenes from the song's lyrics, while others take a more thematic approach. Other music videos may not have any concept, being only a filmed version of the song's live concert performance.[1]
History and development
Development of the music video |
---|
In 1894,
Talkies, soundies, and shorts
With the arrival of "talkies" many musical short films were produced. Vitaphone shorts (produced by Warner Bros.) featured many bands, vocalists, and dancers. Animation artist Max Fleischer introduced a series of sing-along short cartoons called Screen Songs, which invited audiences to sing along to popular songs by "following the bouncing ball", which is similar to a modern karaoke machine. Early cartoons featured popular musicians performing their hit songs on camera in live-action segments during the cartoons. John Logie Baird created Phonovision discs featuring Betty Bolton and other singers from the 1930s. The early animated films by Walt Disney, such as the Silly Symphonies shorts and especially Fantasia, which featured several interpretations of classical pieces, were built around music. The Warner Bros. cartoons, even today billed as Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies, were initially fashioned around specific songs from upcoming Warner Bros. musical films. Live-action musical shorts, featuring such popular artists as Cab Calloway, were also distributed to theaters.
Blues singer Bessie Smith appeared in a two-reel short film called St. Louis Blues featuring a dramatized performance of the hit song. Numerous other musicians appeared in short musical subjects during this period.
Musician Louis Jordan made short films for his songs, some of which were spliced together into a feature film, Lookout Sister. These films were, according to music historian Donald Clarke, the "ancestors" of music video.[3]
Musical films were another important precursor to a music video, and several well-known music videos have imitated the style of classic Hollywood musicals from the 1930s–50s. One of the best-known examples is Madonna's 1985 video for "Material Girl" (directed by Mary Lambert)[4] which was closely modelled on Jack Cole's staging of "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" from the film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. Several of Michael Jackson's videos show the unmistakable influence of the dance sequences in classic Hollywood musicals, including the landmark "Thriller" and the Martin Scorsese-directed "Bad", which was influenced by the stylized dance "fights" in the film version of West Side Story.[5] According to the Internet Accuracy Project, DJ/singer J. P. "The Big Bopper" Richardson was the first to coin the phrase "music video", in 1959.[6]
In his autobiography, Tony Bennett claims to have created "...the first music video" when he was filmed walking along the
The oldest example of a promotional music video with similarities to more abstract, modern videos seems to be the Czechoslovakia "Dáme si do bytu" ("Let's get to the apartment") created and directed by Ladislav Rychman.[9][10]
Beginnings of popular music television and promotional clips: 1960–1973
In the late 1950s
On 1 January 1964, Johnnie Stewart and Stanley Dorfman created the British chart music television series Top of the Pops, which they produced in tandem and directed in weekly rotation until the 1970s.[14] The show's format created a demand for frequent studio appearances by renowned British and US artists at short notice, as the charts came out on Tuesday mornings and the show was taped live on Thursdays. Coupled with the artists busy touring schedules and subsequent requests from broadcasters in Europe and America to showcase popular British acts, ultimately prompted the production of pre-recorded or filmed inserts referred to as "promotional videos." These videos served as substitutes for live performances by the artists and played a pivotal role in the development of the music video genre.[15][16][17] During the early stages of the show's introduction in 1964, when alternative footage was unavailable, Dorfman and Stewart resorted to capturing footage of the enthusiastic audience dancing. However, a significant change took place in October 1964 when a decision was made to occasionally introduce a dance troupe with choreographed routines for specific tracks. This addition brought a new dynamic to the show, enhancing its visual appeal and diversifying the entertainment value for viewers.[18] One notable example was the video for Roy Orbison's song 'Oh Pretty Woman', which Dorfman filmed and directed in the rooftop garden of London's Kensington-based Derry and Toms department store on 19 October 1964 as a visual accompaniment to the song. It subsequently aired on Top of the Pops on 22 October, 29, as well as 12 November and 19."[19][20] By the 1970s, Top of the Pops had an average weekly viewership of 12,500,000 people, had solidified its status as the premier international platform for artists launching new records at the time,[21] had firmly established the significance of promotional film clips as a crucial tool for promoting the careers of emerging artists and generating buzz for new releases by established acts, and was significant in developing and popularising what would later become the music video genre across the globe.[16][17]
In 1964,
Also in 1964, the Beatles starred in their first feature film, A Hard Day's Night, directed by US filmmaker Richard Lester. Shot in black-and-white and presented as a mock documentary, it interspersed comedic and dialogue sequences with musical tones. The musical sequences furnished basic templates on which numerous subsequent music videos were modeled. It was the direct model for the successful US TV series The Monkees (1966–1968), which was similarly composed of film segments that were created to accompany various Monkees songs.[22] The Beatles' second feature, Help! (1965), was a much more lavish affair, filmed in colour in London and on international locations. The title track sequence, filmed in black-and-white, is arguably one of the prime archetypes of the modern performance-style music video, employing rhythmic cross-cutting, contrasting long shots and close-ups, and infrequent shots and camera angles, such as the shot 50 seconds into the song, in which George Harrison's left hand and the neck of his guitar are seen in sharp focus in the foreground while the completely out-of-focus figure of John Lennon sings in the background.
In 1965, the Beatles started making promotional clips (then known as "filmed inserts") for distribution and broadcast on Top of the Pops and in different countries—primarily the
Concert films were being released in the mid-1960s, at least as early as 1964, with the T.A.M.I. Show.
The monochrome 1965 clip for Bob Dylan's "Subterranean Homesick Blues" filmed by D. A. Pennebaker was featured in Pennebaker's Dylan film documentary Dont Look Back. Eschewing any attempt to simulate performance or present a narrative, the clip shows Dylan standing in a city back alley, silently shuffling a series of large cue cards (bearing key words from the song's lyrics).
Besides the Beatles, many other British artists made "filmed inserts" so they could be screened on TV when the bands were not available to appear live.
The Rolling Stones appeared in many promotional clips for their songs in the 1960s. In 1966,
In 1966, Nancy Sinatra filmed a clip for her song "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'". Roy Orbison appeared in promotional clips, such as his 1968 hit, "Walk On".[29]
During late 1972–73,
Country music also picked up on the trend of promotional film clips to publicize songs. Sam Lovullo, the producer of the television series Hee Haw, explained his show presented "what were, in reality, the first musical videos",[32] while JMI Records made the same claim with Don Williams' 1973 song "The Shelter of Your Eyes".[33] Country music historian Bob Millard wrote that JMI had pioneered the country music video concept by "producing a 3-minute film" to go along with Williams' song.[33] Lovullo said his videos were conceptualized by having the show's staff go to nearby rural areas and film animals and farmers, before editing the footage to fit the storyline of a particular song. "The video material was a very workable production item for the show," he wrote. "It provided picture stories for songs. However, some of our guests felt the videos took attention away from their live performances, which they hoped would promote record sales. If they had a hit song, they didn't want to play it under comic barnyard footage." The concept's mixed reaction eventually spelled an end to the "video" concept on Hee Haw.[32] Promotional films of country music songs, however, continued to be produced.
In 1974, the band Sparks made a promotional video for their song "This Town Ain't Big Enough for Both of Us".[34]
1974–1980
The Australian TV shows
In 1975, Queen employed Bruce Gowers to make a promotional video to show their new single "Bohemian Rhapsody" on the BBC music series Top of the Pops. According to rock historian Paul Fowles, the song is "widely credited as the first global hit single for which an accompanying video was central to the marketing strategy".[36] Rolling Stone has said of "Bohemian Rhapsody": "Its influence cannot be overstated, practically inventing the music video seven [sic] years before MTV went on the air."[37]
At the end of the 1970s, the broadcasting of music videos on television became more and more regular, in several countries. The music videos were, for example, broadcast in weekly music programs or inserted into various programs. In the United States, for example, on terrestrial networks at the end of the 1970s, music videos were sometimes broadcast on music shows: The Midnight Special, Don Kirshner's Rock Concert, and occasionally on certain talk shows.[38]
A worldwide pioneer in programs that only transmitted rock and pop music video clips was the Peruvian program Disco Club, hosted by the Peruvian musician Gerardo Manuel, which began its transmission on the Peruvian state channel (Channel 7 of
Video Concert Hall, created by Jerry Crowe and Charles Henderson and launched on November 1, 1979, was the first nationwide video music programming on American cable television, predating MTV by almost two years.[39][40][41][42] The USA Cable Network program Night Flight was one of the first American programs to showcase these videos as an art form.
In 1980, the music video to
The same year, New Zealander group
1981–1991: Music videos go mainstream
In 1981, the U.S. video channel MTV launched, airing "Video Killed the Radio Star" by The Buggles and beginning an era of 24-hour-a-day music on television. With this new outlet for material, the music video would, by the mid-1980s, grow to play a central role in popular music marketing. Many important acts of this period, most notably Michael Jackson, Adam and the Ants, Duran Duran and Madonna, owed a great deal of their success to the skillful construction and seductive appeal of their videos.
Two key innovations in the development of the modern music video were the development of relatively inexpensive and easy-to-use video recording and editing equipment, and the development of visual effects created with techniques such as image compositing.[citation needed] The advent of high-quality color videotape recorders and portable video cameras coincided with the DIY ethos of the new wave era,[citation needed] enabling many pop acts to produce promotional videos quickly and cheaply, in comparison to the relatively high costs of using film. However, as the genre developed, music video directors increasingly turned to 35mm film as the preferred medium, while others mixed film and video. During the 1980s, music videos had become de rigueur for most recording artists. The phenomenon was famously parodied by
In this period, directors and the acts they worked with began to discover and expand the form and style of the genre, using more sophisticated effects in their videos, mixing film and video, and adding a storyline or plot to the music video. Occasionally videos were made in a non-representational form, in which the musical artist was not shown. Because music videos are mainly intended to promote the artist, such videos are comparatively rare; three early 1980s examples are
In the early 1980s, music videos also began to discover political and social themes. Examples include the music videos for David Bowie's "China Girl" and "Let's Dance" (1983) which both discussed race issues.[47] In a 1983 interview, Bowie spoke about the importance of using music videos in addressing social issues, "Let's try to use the video format as a platform for some kind of social observation, and not just waste it on trotting out and trying to enhance the public image of the singer involved".[48]
In 1983, one of the most successful, influential and iconic music videos of all time was released: the nearly 14-minute-long video for
MTV also influences music video shows aired on other American TV channels, such as: Friday Night Videos, launched in 1983 on the terrestrial network NBC and MV3 launched in 1982.
On March 5, 1983,
In 1985, MTV's Viacom (currently Paramount) launched the channel
The video for the 1985
In 1988, the show Yo! MTV Raps introduced; the show helped to bring hip hop music to a mass audience for the first time.
1992–2004: Rise of the directors
In November 1992, MTV began screening videos made by Chris Cunningham, Michel Gondry, Spike Jonze, Floria Sigismondi,[57] Stéphane Sednaoui, Mark Romanek and Hype Williams who all got their start around this time; all brought a unique vision and style to the videos they directed. Some of these directors, including, Gondry, Jonze, Sigismondi,[58] and F. Gary Gray, went on to direct feature films. This continued a trend that had begun earlier with directors such as Lasse Hallström and David Fincher.
Two of the videos directed by Romanek in 1995 are notable for being two of the three
During this period, MTV launched channels around the world to show music videos produced in each local market:
In 1999, Mariah Carey's "Heartbreaker" (featuring guest rapper) became one of the most expensive ever made, costing over $2.5 million.[61]
From 1991 to 2001, Billboard had its own Music Video Awards.
2005–present: Music video downloads and streaming
The website iFilm, which hosted short videos including music videos, launched in 1997. Napster, a peer-to-peer file sharing service which ran between 1999 and 2001, enabled users to share video files, including those for music videos. By the mid-2000s, MTV and many of its sister channels had largely abandoned showing music videos in favor of reality TV shows, which were more popular with its audiences, and which MTV had itself helped to pioneer with the show The Real World, which premiered in 1992.
2005 saw the launch of
At its launch,
The 2008 video for
To further signify the change in direction towards Music Video airplay, MTV officially dropped the Music Television tagline on February 8, 2010 from their logo in response to their increased commitment to non-scripted reality programming and other youth-oriented entertainment rising in prominence on their live broadcast.[62]
Vevo, a music video service launched by several major music publishers, debuted in December 2009.[63] The videos on Vevo are syndicated to YouTube, with Google and Vevo sharing the advertising revenue.[64]
As of 2017, the most-watched English-language video on YouTube was "
Official lo-fi Internet music clips
Following the shift toward internet broadcasting and the rising popularity of user-generated video sites such as
Vertical videos
In the late 2010s, some artists began releasing alternative
Lyric videos
A lyric video is a type of music video in which the lyrics to the song are the primary visual element of the video. As such, they can be created with relative ease and often serve as a supplemental video to a more traditional music video.
The music video for R.E.M.'s 1986 song "Fall on Me" interspersed the song's lyrics with abstract film footage. In 1987, Prince released a video for his song "Sign o' the Times". The video featured the song's words pulsing to the music, presented alongside abstract geometric shapes, an effect created by Bill Konersman.[70][71] The following year, the video for the Talking Heads single "(Nothing But) Flowers" composed of the song's lyrics superimposed onto or next to members of the band, was released. In 1990, George Michael released "Praying for Time" as a lyric video. He had refused to make a traditional music video, so his label released a simple clip that displayed the song's lyrics on a black screen.[72]
Lyric videos rose to greater prominence in the 2010s, when it became relatively easy for artists to disperse videos through websites such as
Censorship
As the concept and medium of a music video is a form of artistic expression, artists have been on many occasions censored if their content is deemed offensive. What may be considered offensive will differ in countries due to censorship laws and local customs and ethics. In most cases, the record label will provide and distribute videos edited or provide both censored and uncensored videos for an artist. In some cases, it has been known for music videos to be banned in their entirety as they have been deemed far too offensive to be broadcast.
1980s
The first video to be banned by MTV was Queen's 1982 hit "Body Language". Due to thinly veiled homoerotic undertones plus much skin and sweat (but apparently not enough clothing, save that worn by the fully clothed members of Queen themselves), it was deemed unsuitable for a television audience at the time. However, the channel did air Olivia Newton-John's 1981 video for the hit song "Physical", which lavished camera time on male models working out in string bikinis who spurn her advances, ultimately pairing off to walk to the men's locker rooms holding hands, though the network ended the clip before the overt homosexual "reveal" ending in some airings. The video for "Girls on Film" by Duran Duran, which featured topless women mud wrestling and other depictions of sexual fetishes was banned by the BBC. MTV did air the video, albeit in a heavily edited form.
In 1983, Entertainment Tonight ran a segment on censorship and "Rock Video Violence". The episode explored the impact of MTV rock video violence on the youth of the early 1980s. Excerpts from the music videos of Michael Jackson, Duran Duran, Golden Earring, Kiss, Kansas, Billy Idol, Def Leppard, Pat Benatar and The Rolling Stones were shown. Dr. Thomas Radecki of the National Coalition on TV Violence was interviewed accusing the fledgling rock video business of excessive violence. Night Tracks' producer Tom Lynch weighed in on the effects of the video violence controversy. Recording artists John Cougar Mellencamp, Gene Simmons and Paul Stanley of Kiss, along with directors Dominic Orlando and Julien Temple, provided a defense of their work. The episode's conclusion was that the controversy will continue to grow. Some artists have used censorship as a publicity tool. In the 1980s, the show Top of the Pops was censorious in its approach to video content, so some acts made videos that they knew would be censored, using the resulting public controversy to promote their release. Examples of this tactic were Duran Duran's aforementioned "Girls on Film" and Frankie Goes to Hollywood with "Relax", directed by Bernard Rose.
1990s
In 1991, the dance segment of
In 1992,
In 1993, the Australian rock band INXS' song "The Gift" was banned by MTV due to its use of Holocaust and Gulf War footage, among images of famine, pollution, war, and terrorism. As well as this, metal band Tool's music video for "Prison Sex" was banned from MTV, as the video and lyrics touch on the sensitive matter of child abuse.
2000s
In 2000, the music video for "Rock DJ" by Robbie Williams caused controversy due to the graphic nature of the video which features Williams stripping naked then peeling off his skin to reveal bloody flesh, followed by ripping off his muscles and organs until he is nothing but a blood-soaked skeleton. The video was censored in the UK during daytime hours and was broadcast unedited after 10 pm. The video was banned in Dominican Republic due to allegations of satanism.[78]
In 2001, Björk's video for "Pagan Poetry" was banned from MTV for depictions of sexual intercourse, fellatio, and body piercings. Her next single, "Cocoon", was also banned by MTV as it featured a nude Björk (though the nude body was usually a fitted bodysuit rigged with red string).
In 2002,
In 2004,
As of 2005, the Egyptian state censorship committee banned at least 20 music videos which featured sexual connotations due to Muslim moral viewpoints.[79] The music video of "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" which featured Jessica Simpson in character as Daisy Duke, was controversial for featuring Simpson in "revealing" outfits and washing the General Lee car in her bikini.[80] The controversy resulted in the music video being banned in some countries.[81]
In 2008,
While country music has largely avoided controversy surrounding video content, it has never been immune. The music video for the 2003
2010s
In 2010, Thirty Seconds to Mars' video "Hurricane" was censored due to its major elements of violence, nudity and sex.[86] The short film was later released with a clean version that can air on television.[87] The explicit version is available on the band's official website with a viewing certificate of 18+.[88]
In 2010, a rumor circulated that
In 2011, the video for "S&M", which features the Barbadian singer Rihanna whipping a tied-up white man, taking hostages and indulging in a lesbian kiss, was banned in eleven countries and was flagged as inappropriate for viewers that are under 18 on YouTube.[92]
2020s
In 2019, Lil Nas X's viral song "Old Town Road" became the longest-running number-one song on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. However, it was his follow-up song named "Montero (Call Me By Your Name)" which was released in 2021 that raised the controversy. In the music video for "Montero", Lil Nas X included various provocative scenes, including one in which he gives a lap dance to Satan. The video was widely criticized by conservative and religious groups, who saw it as promoting Satanism and immorality. Lil Nas X responded to the backlash by defending that it was just a way of expressing his own sexuality and challenging societal norms. He made profit regarding to the controversy by promoting his own merchandise, including a pair of "Satan Shoes" that were made in collaboration with a company called MSCHF. A peculiar thing about these shoes are that they had real human blood in each pair. The controversy related to "Montero" eventually helped dragging the song to even greater success, debuting at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and earning applause from critics for its bold and innovative approach to music and visuals.[93]
In 2023, the music video "I'm Not Here To Make Friends" by Sam Smith was criticised and debated about regarding whether it should be censored or not. Critics claimed that the music video was sexualised, irresponsible and improper, and not good for society, where as the discussion on ITV's Good Morning Britain inquired as to whether it was no different and similar to the Madonna music videos of the '80s and '90s. Proponents claimed that it was not different to Rocky Horror Picture Show, or the Frankie Goes to Hollywood's "Relax" music video that were successful decades ago.[94]
In 2023, the music video "Try That in a Small Town" by Jason Aldean was banned by CMT due to controversy. Lyrics expressed behaviours that supposedly happen in the big cities that would be perceived to not be liked in a small town, such as, "carjack an old lady"; "cuss out a cop"; and "stomp on the flag." United States State Representative Justin Jones of Tennessee, a US Democrat, condemned the song on Twitter, describing it as a "heinous song calling for racist violence" that promoted "a shameful vision of gun extremism and vigilantism."
Aldean then defended himself on Twitter, asserting that he had been wrongly accused of releasing a pro-lynching song, and that he was "not too pleased" with the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests.[95]
Commercial release
Video album
Music videos have been released commercially on physical formats such as
Due to the increase of video albums popularity,
Video single
A video single contains no more than three music videos in the form of a videotape, LaserDisc or DVD. In 1983, British
The DVD single was introduced in the late 1990s as a replacement for the videotape single. Although many record companies in the United States refused to issue
In the United Kingdom where up to 3 physical formats are eligible for the
Beginning in the early 2000s, artists in Japan may release singles in the CD+DVD format. Japanese singer Ayumi Hamasaki has been credited as the "creator of the CD+DVD format"; one of the examples is her 2005 single "Fairyland". The CD+DVD format is more expensive and usually contains one or more music videos, and sometimes a "making of" section or other bonus material is included.
The Japanese music conglomerate
Unofficial music videos
Unofficial, fan-made music videos are typically made by synchronizing existing footage from other sources, such as television series or films, with the song. The first known fan video, or songvid, was created by Kandy Fong in 1975 using still images from Star Trek loaded into a slide carousel and played in conjunction with a song.[108] Fan videos made using videocassette recorders soon followed.[109] With the advent of easy distribution over the internet and cheap video-editing software, fan-created videos began to gain wider notice in the late 1990s.
A well-known example of an unofficial video is one made for
In 2004, a Placebo fan from South Africa[111] made a claymation video for the band's song "English Summer Rain" and sent it to the band. They liked the result so much that it was included on their greatest hits DVD.[112]
In 2016, a Flash animation for song "Come Together" by the Beatles was included on The Beatles Blu-ray disc.
Music video stations
Music video shows
- 24 Hours of Love (MTV2; premiered in 2002)
- 3ABN Today Music (3ABN Praise Him Music Network)
- ABC Rocks (ABC)
- America's Top 10 (Syndication)
- Back to Nature (3ABN, 3ABN International, 3ABN Praise Him Music Network)
- 106 & Park (BET; 2000-December 19, 2014)
- CD:UK Hotshots (ITV1; 1998–2007)
- Top of the Pops (BBC; 1964–2006)
- Logo)
- Countdown (ABC)
- 8-Track Flashback (VH1)
- Friday Night Videos (NBC)
- Goodnight LA (KABC)
- Good Rockin' Tonite (CBC)
- Headbangers Ball (MTV2)
- Jack's Big Music Show (Nick Jr.)
- Jukebox (AITV) (Syndication)
- Kidsongs (PBS)
- Kids Praise Too! (3ABN, 3ABN International, 3ABN Kids Network)
- Fuse)
- MTV Latin America)
- Magnify Him (3ABN Dare to Dream Network, 3ABN Praise Him Music Network)
- Melodías del Corazón (3ABN Latino)
- Melody From My Heart (3ABN, 3ABN International, 3ABN Praise Him Music Network)
- The Metric Marvels (NBC)
- TBS)
- Piano Praise (3ABN, 3ABN Praise Him Music Network)
- Pop-Up Video (VH1)
- Praise (3ABN, 3ABN International, 3ABN Praise Him Music Network)
- Rage (ABC)
- Schoolhouse Rock (ABC)
- The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour (CBS; first broadcast in 1968)
- Syndication)
- Soundwaves (Syndication)
- Network Ten)
- Video Hits Canada (CBC)
- Video Jukebox (TV series) (HBO)
- TRL (MTV)
- Fuse)
- MuchMusic)
- Music Station (TV Asahi)
- New York Hot Tracks (Syndication)
- C4)
- VH1 Top 20 Video Countdown (VH1; 1995-2015)
- Volvamos a la Naturaleza (3ABN Latino)
- Your Favorites by Request (3ABN, 3ABN International, 3ABN Praise Him Music Network)
See also
- Concert video design
- First 24-hour music video
- Music video director
- Music
- Music video game
- Musical film
- List of one-shot music videos
- Semiotics of music videos
- Video art
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{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Once More with Feeling DVD audio commentary, Virgin, 2004
Further reading
- Banks, Jack (1996) Monopoly Television: Mtv's Quest to Control the Music ISBN 0-8133-1820-3
- Burns, Lori A. and Stan Hawkins, eds. (2019) The Bloomsbury Handbook of Popular Music Video Analysis. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 9781501342332
- ISBN 0-312-11573-3
- Denisoff, R. Serge (1991) Inside MTV New Brunswick: Transaction publishers, ISBN 0-88738-864-7
- Durant, Alan (1984). Cited in Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
- ISBN 0-415-09431-3
- Goodwin, Andrew (1992) Dancing in the Distraction Factory : Music Television and Popular Culture ISBN 0-8166-2063-6
- Illescas, Jon E. (2015) La Dictadura del Videoclip. Industria musical y sueños prefabricados ISBN 978-84-16288-55-7
- Johnson, Henry & Oli Wilson (2016) "Music video and online social media: A case study of the discourse around Japanese imagery in the New Zealand indie scene". Sites: A Journal of Social Anthropology & Cultural Studies 13 (2): 163–186. ISSN 1179-0237
- Kaplan, E. Ann (1987) Rocking Around the Clock. Music Television, Postmodernism, and Consumer Culture London & New York: ISBN 0-415-03005-6
- ISBN 383761185X
- Kleiler, David (1997) You Stand There: Making Music Video ISBN 0-609-80036-1
- ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
- Shore, Michael (1984) The Rolling Stone book of rock video New York: Quill ISBN 0-688-03916-2
- Turner, G. Video Clips and Popular Music, in Australian Journal of Cultural Studies 1/1,1983, 107–110
- Vernallis, Carol (2004) Experiencing Music Video: Aesthetics and Cultural Context ISBN 0-231-11798-1
- Thomas Dreher: History of Computer Art Chap. IV.2.1.4.2: Music Videos.