Muslim conquest of Transoxiana
Muslim conquest of Transoxiana | |||||||
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Part of the Penjikent mural. | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Umayyad Caliphate (until 748) Tibetan Empire |
Principalities of Karkota Dynasty at Battle of Talas | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
The Muslim conquest of Transoxiana or Arab conquest of Transoxiana were the 7th and 8th century
Background: Transoxiana before the Arab conquest
The Arabs of the nascent
Geographically, politically, and socially, Transoxiana was divided into four regions:
As the historian Hugh N. Kennedy remarks, "[Transoxiana] was a rich land, full of opportunities and wealth but defended by warlike men who valued their independence very highly". Its subjugation would prove to be the longest and hardest-fought of the early Muslim conquests, and not completed until the Battle of Talas secured Muslim dominance over the region in 751.[2]
Tokharistan
Tokharistan was named after the
When the Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang visited Tokharistan in 630 CE, he found no fewer than 27 different principalities, under the overall authority of a Turkic prince (Shad) with his seat at Kunduz, who was the eldest son of the Western Turkic Yabghu (viceroy). Following the collapse of the Western Turkic Khaganate in the 650s, this prince became an independent ruler, claiming the title of Yabghu for himself.[10] The Tokhara Yabghus maintained some sort of suzerainty over the other principalities of Tokharistan and even beyond, up to Herat in the southeast and Kabul in the southwest, but this authority was largely nominal. The local princes—many of whom were Turkic chieftains and local governors who had likewise seized authority in the wake of the Western Turkic Khaganate's collapse—were effectively independent.[10] Sources attest to the settlement of Turks, especially Karluks, in the region during the 7th century; the principalities of Zabulistan, Kapisa and Gandhara, which lay south of the Hindu Kush but also came under the nominal rule of the Yabghu at Kunduz, were dominated by Turks in the early 8th century.[11]
In the northern half of the region, Upper Tokharistan, the most important principalities from east to west were Badakhshan, Khuttal, Kubadhiyan, and Chaghaniyan (Arabic Saghaniyan).[12] South of the Oxus, in Lower Tokharistan, the important principalities were those of
Sogdia
North and west of the Hissar range, along the basins of the rivers Zarafshan and
Chinese records seem to suggest that most of the Sogdian princes belonged to branches of the same ruling house, and that the head of this house, the ruler of Samarkand, was allied by marriage to the Turkic
Sogdia escaped annexation by either the Kushan or the Sasanian empires,[15] but came under Hephthalite and later Turkic sway in the 6th century.[20] The Sogdians played a major role in the administration of the Turkic khaganate,[21][22] and were particularly active as merchants in the so-called "Silk Road"; the Sogdian language was the early lingua franca of the Silk Road.[23][24] During the 6th century, the Turks accumulated enormous quantities of silk given as tribute by the Chinese Northern dynasties, which the Sogdians endeavoured to sell west to the markets of the Byzantine Empire. The refusal of the Sasanians to let them trade or cross their lands to trade further west was one of the reasons for the Göktürk–Persian wars of the 6th–7th centuries and the annexation of the northeastern Iranian lands by the Turks.[25][26]
After the collapse of the Turkic khaganates, the Sogdian princes regained their independence, recognizing only a loose suzerainty of the Chinese emperors of the
Khwarizm
To the west of Sogdia, likewise a fertile land isolated amidst the desert expanse, lay Khwarizm. It was inhabited by a sedentary, urbanized Iranian people.
Middle Jaxartes and the Fergana Valley
To the north and east of Sogdia stretched the so-called "Hungry Steppe", an expanse of c. 160 kilometres (99 mi), which gave way to the fertile regions around the river Jaxartes. The Jaxartes was smaller than the Oxus and easily fordable.[35] Immediately northeast of Sogdia, between the Hissar mountains and the middle course of the Jaxartes, lay the principality of Ustrushana, which was often considered part of Sogdia and preserved close ethnic and cultural ties with the Sogdian principalities.[15][36] From its capital of Bunjikat, Usrushana was ruled by a series of kings bearing the title of afshin, nominally under Hephthalite and later Western Turkic suzerainty but practically autonomous.[37] East of Usrushana lay the small principality of Khujand, extending on both banks of the Jaxartes and made prosperous from agriculture, minerals, and trade.[38]
North of the Jaxartes lay the principalities of Chach (Ar. Shash, modern Tashkent) and Ilak. They too were under Hephthalite and later Turkic suzerainty, but their rulers—the tudun of Chach and the dihqan of Ilak—were practically autonomous.[39] While inhabited by a mostly Iranian-speaking, Zoroastrian population, large-scale Turkic settlement occurred in the 6th–7th centuries, including, in the 7th century, of Türgesh nomads.[40] Although smaller than Usrushana, the principalities were prosperous: Chach had much arable land and livestock, while Ilak had mines and livestock, and both profited from their location in the caravan trade routes with China.[41]
East of Usrushana, Khujand, and Chach lay the large Fergana Valley, a fertile and wealthy region surrounded by mountains.
Start of the Muslim conquest
Although the Arab sources give the impression that the Arabs began their conquest of the region in the 650s, in reality most of the early warfare in the area were little more than raids aiming at seizing booty and extracting tribute. Indeed, Arab presence was limited to a small garrison at
First Muslim incursions, 651–658
Pursuing the Sasanian shah,
With the onset of winter, Ibn Amir left only 4,000 men at Marw, and returned to his base in Iraq.
Second wave of Muslim attacks, 661–683
After the end of the civil war, Abdallah ibn Amir was again entrusted with restoring Muslim control over Khorasan by the new
More importantly for the future of Muslim presence in the region, in 671 Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan settled 50,000 warriors, drawn from the Iraqi garrison cities of Basra and Kufa, with their families in Marw and other cities of the region, such as Nishapur, Abiward, Sarakhs and Herat.[45][50] This move not only immensely bolstered the Muslim element and rule in Khorasan, but also provided the forces necessary for future expansion into Transoxiana. While previously annual expeditions had to be mustered and sent from Iraq, now a large pool of manpower was available on the very frontier of the caliphate, eager to make their fortune in wars of conquest.[51][52] At the same time, the Iraqi tribes brought with them a strong regional identity and their rivalries, notably the Qays–Yaman factionalism, which in Khorasan came to exceed in ferocity the rivalries seen in Iraq, and repeatedly placed Arab Muslim rule of the region at risk of collapse.[50]
When Ziyad died, his policies were continued by his son, Ubayd Allah, who was appointed governor of Khorasan and arrived at Marw in autumn 673. In the next spring, Ubayd Allah crossed the Oxus and invaded the principality of Bukhara, which at the time was led by the queen-mother, known simply as Khatun (a Turkic title meaning "lady"), as regent for her infant son Tughshada. The Arabs achieved a first success near the town of Baykand , before marching on to Bukhara itself. The local historical tradition records that the Arabs besieged Bukhara, and that the Turks were called for help, although this is missing in the Arab sources, which simply state that the Arabs won a great victory over the Bukharans. Following a practice that was apparently common at the time, Ubayd Allah recruited 2,000 captives, all "skillful archers", as his personal guard. Bukhara acknowledged some form of Arab suzerainty and was obliged to pay a tribute of a million silver dirhams.[45][53]
Ubayd Allah's success was not followed up by his successors,
Tribal turmoil in Khorasan, 683–704
The Second Fitna put an end to Muslim expansion in Central Asia for a generation. In the absence of centrally-appointed governors, Khorasan was engulfed by intertribal warfare among the Arab settlers, while local princes withheld tribute and the Hephthalite princes even launched raids into Khorasan.
Umayya ibn Abdallah ibn Khalid ibn Asid, a prince of the Umayyad dynasty, was appointed as the new governor in 691,[61] and managed to restore Lower Tokharistan to at least nominal Arab suzerainty.[62] His attempt to expel Musa from Tirmidh, however, failed, although the Arab attack was joined by a simultaneous Turkic one.[63] The restiveness of the Arabs of Khorasan was to be a major problem for the Umayyad governors. On the one hand, in a bid to keep the Arab settlers occupied and placate them with the prospect of plunder, they sought to conquer territory across the Oxus, but on the other, the volatile tribal politics doomed such efforts. Thus in 696, Umayya was abandoned beyond the Oxus by his second-in-command, who tried to seize control of Marw, and had to conclude a quick and humiliating peace with the Bukharans after being encircled and almost destroyed.[64] Umayya also faced the dissatisfaction of the Iranian mawali, who despite being converts to Islam were obliged to pay the kharaj tax.[65] As a result, Khorasan was attached to the eastern viceroyalty of the powerful governor of Iraq, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, who appointed the famous Azdi warrior-leader al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra as his governor in the province.[66] His campaigns were not much more successful: he blockaded Kish for two years, but failed to conquer it and had to satisfy himself with the extraction of tribute from the city. At the same time, his sons, Yazid and Habib, led secondary expeditions against Khuttal and Rabinjan, which also failed to achieve much.[67][68]
After al-Muhallab's death in 702, he was succeeded by his son Yazid, who did not launch any campaigns during his two-year governorship, apart from a raid into Khwarizm.[69] Worse, Yazid's championing of his own tribe, the Azd, alienated many among the other Arab tribes; and his mistreatment of the chief mawali leaders, Hurayth and Thabit ibn Qutba, provoked their defection to Musa. The latter now became a rallying figure for opposition to Umayyad rule: he was joined by aristocratic Iranian mawali, disaffected Arabs from Khorasan, 8,000 refugees from Ibn al-Ash'ath's failed anti-Umayyad uprising in Iraq, and gained the support of the prince of Chaghaniyan and Nezak Tarkhan of Badghis. Even Narsieh, a son of Peroz and purported heir to the Sasanian crown, appeared in Tokharistan.[70][71] Musa had to tread a careful balance between his Iranian supporters, who favoured an invasion of Khorasan and the expulsion of the Arabs, and his Arab followers, who feared losing their eminent status in the event of an Iranian restoration and preferred supplanting Umayyad authority with their own. As a result Musa limited himself to the expulsion of the Umayyad governors from Chaghaniyan and Lower Tokharistan, which was apparently swiftly and easily accomplished.[72][73]
Musa's nascent independent rule faltered, however, on the dissensions between Arabs and Iranians. Open conflict broke out when Musa's Iranian followers, led by Thabit ibn Qutba, rebelled, with the backing of the native princes. While Musa prevailed over his erstwhile companions, this was a hollow victory, as it estranged the cause of the Arabs of Tirmidh from the native princes.[74] The persistent disunity of the Transoxianian princes, riven by their own feuds, and failing to recognize the still persistent danger of an Arab conquest, would be suitably exploited by the Umayyad governors.[75] Already in 704, the Umayyad commander Uthman ibn Mas'ud was able to ally with some native princes and defeat and kill Musa, capturing Tirmidh.[76][77]
Conquests of Qutayba ibn Muslim
Qutayba's appointment marked a seminal moment in the history of the Muslim conquest of Central Asia. During his ten-year tenure, he was able to consolidate the political situation in Khorasan, and at the same time pursue an active policy of expansion into Transoxiana.
Conquest of Tokharistan and Bukhara, 705–710
Qutayba began his tenure by recovering Balkh in spring 705, thereby bringing Lower Tokharistan to heel. This was followed by the submission of the local princes in the upper Oxus valley, most notably of Tish, prince of Chaghaniyan, and the negotiated surrender of Nezak of Badghis. Still unsure of Nezak's loyalty, Qutayba required him to accompany him in his expeditions.[85][86]
In 706–709, Qutayba occupied himself with the long and bloody conquest of the kingdom of Bukhara.[87] The Bukharan realm was at the time weakened by civil war: royal power had been weakened in favour of ambitious nobles during the minority of King Tughshada and the regency of the Khatun. Bukhara itself had fallen under the rule of the Wardan Khudah, lord of Wardana, and another magnate, Khunuk Khudah, who had usurped the title of king of Bukhara (Bukhar Khudah).[88] Taking advantage of the conflict, Qutayba was able to easily capture Baykand. When the city rebelled, shortly after, he proceeded to punish it in exemplary fashion: men of fighting age were executed, the women and children sold off as slaves, and enormous booty amassed, especially in high-quality armour and weapons, which was used to equip the Arab army.[89][90]
The brutal treatment of Baykand shocked the region: the Sogdians patched up their quarrels and the Sogdian princes of
The Arab successes worried Nezak, who in the autumn of 709 escaped the Arab camp and raised Lower Tokharistan in revolt: while the ruler of Chaghaniyan apparently refused to join, the princes of Talaqan and Faryab, and the city of Balkh, did, as did the Yabghu, still the nominal suzerain of the entire region.
A subsequent revolt by the king of Shuman and Akharun was also quickly suppressed, with the king killed in battle and his men massacred; this marked the start of the slide to obscurity for both fortresses.[96] Qutayba then marched west over the Iron Gate, taking Kish and Nasaf and visiting Bukhara, where he settled relations between the Arabs and the locals, installed Tughshada in the position of Bukhar Khudah and established an Arab military colony in the city. Later, in 712/13, Qutayba built a mosque in the city's citadel, but although the Arab authorities encouraged the conversion of the native population by paying them to attend prayers, Islamization proceeded slowly.[78][97]
Umayyad–Türgesh wars
The larger part of Transoxiana was finally conquered by the Umayyad leader
Qutayba's campaigns have been mixed up with a diplomatic mission. They sent to China in chronicles written by Arabs. Documents in Chinese give 713 as the year the Arab diplomatic delegation was sent. China was asked for help by Shah's Prince against Qutayba.[102]
The Turgesh responded by launching a series of attacks against the Muslims in Transoxiana, beginning in 720. These incursions were coupled with uprisings against the Caliphate among the local
The Chinese and Turks were reported to have come to aid the Sogdians in their war against the Arabs which raised the hopes of Divashtich.[clarification needed] After the Arabs seized Penjikent, the rebel leader Divashtich retreated to his fortress on Mount Mugh. Archives in the Sogdian language found at Divashtich's fortress reveal his precarious position and the events leading up to his capture. After Divashtich's capture, the governor of Khurasan, Said al-Harashi, ordered his crucifixion on a na'us (burial mound).[105]
Samarkand, Bukhara and Paikent fell to Qutayba ibn Muslim.[108] In response, the Arabs were almost beaten back by the Turgesh, who were partners with the Sogdians.[109] Sulaiman most likely executed Qutayba, who, after seizing Samarkand and Bukhara, had crushed Sassanian remnants and had Khorezmian scholars slaughtered.[when?] Ferghana, Khojand and Chach had fallen to Qutayba.[citation needed]
In 721, Turgesh forces, led by Kül Chor, defeated the Caliphate army commanded by Sa'id ibn Abdu'l-Aziz near
In 724, the Muslims were defeated by the Turks of the Turgesh as the Sogdians and Turks fought against the Umayyads.[clarification needed] The Sogdians were pacified by Nasr ibn Sayyar after Sulu, Khagan of the Turgesh, died.[110]
Islam did not widely spread until the Abbasid rule.[111]
Samarkand was taken by Qutayba after they achieved victory over the army of the Eastern Turks under Kul Tegin Qapaghan Qaghan came to assist against the Arabs after his vassal, the Tashkent King, received plea from the Samarkand Prince Ghurak against the Arab attack by Qutayba bin Muslim.[112]
Qutayba's Muslims obliterated and triumphed over the union of several Ferghana states as fierce fighting took place in Sogdian Samarkand and Khorezm against Qutayba ibn Muslim. An easier time was had in the conquest of Bukhara.[113] Under Ghurak, Sogdian Samarkand was forced to capitulate to the joint Arab-Khwarazmian and Bukharan forces of Qutayba. The obliteration of idols was ordered by Qutayba along with the construction of a Mosque, 30,000 slaves and 2,200,000 dirhams.[114] Dewashtich's uprising was an example of anti Islamification sentiment felt after the conquest of the region by the Arabs.[115]
A string of subsequent appointees of Hisham were defeated by Suluk, who in 728 took
In 734, an early Abbasid follower,
Much of the culture and heritage of the Sogdians was lost due to the war.[119] Geographic names used by Muslims contained reminders of the Sogdians.[120] The role of lingua franca that Sogdian originally played was succeeded by Persian after the arrival of Islam.[121]
Umayyad-Tang China wars
Arab sources claim Qutayba ibn Muslim briefly took Kashgar from China and withdrew after an agreement[122] but modern historians entirely dismiss this claim.[123][124][125]
The Arab
General Tang Jiahui led the Chinese to defeat the following Arab-Tibetan attack in the
Last battles
Samarra, Baghdad, Nishapur and Merv were destinations for Sogdians who worked for the Abbasids and became Muslims.[108] The coming to power of the Abbasids resulted in the local Sogdian rulers being relocated from the area to become the Caliph's officers.[133]
The last major victory of Arabs in Central Asia occurred at the
Turks had to wait two and a half centuries before reconquering Transoxiana, when the
Islamization
The process of islamization of local peoples was slow during the
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Further reading