Muslim world
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
|
The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the
The
As of 2013[update], the combined GDP (nominal) of 60 Muslim majority countries was US$5.7 trillion.[9] As of 2016[update], they contributed 8% of the world's total.[10] In 2020, the Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation which consists of 57 member states had a combined GDP(PPP) of US$ 24 trillion which is equal to about 18% of world's GDP or US$ 30 trillion with 5 OIC observer states which is equal to about 22% of the world's GDP.
As of 2020, 1.8 billion or more than 25% of the world population are Muslims.
Most Muslims are of one of two
Part of a series on |
Islam |
---|
Terminology
The term has been documented as early as 1912 to encompass the influence of perceived pan-Islamic propaganda. The Times described Pan-Islamism as a movement with power, importance, and cohesion born in Paris, where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The correspondent's focus was on India: it would take too long to consider the progress made in various parts of the Muslim world. The article considered the position of the Amir, the effect of the Tripoli Campaign, Anglo-Russian action in Persia, and "Afghan Ambitions".[52]
In a modern geopolitical sense, the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' refer to countries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.[53][3] Some scholars and commentators have criticised the term 'Muslim/Islamic world' and its derivative terms 'Muslim/Islamic country' as "simplistic" and "binary", since no state has a religiously homogeneous population (e.g. Egypt's citizens are c. 10% Christians), and in absolute numbers, there are sometimes fewer Muslims living in countries in which they make up the majority than in countries in which they form a minority.[54][55][56] Hence, the term 'Muslim-majority countries' is often preferred in literature.[5]
History
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2020) |
The
After Muhammad died in 632, his successors (the
Gunpowder empires
Scholars often use the term
-
Safavid Empire's Zamburak.
-
Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during
-
Gun-wielding Ottoman Janissaries in combat against the Knights of Saint John at the Siege of Rhodes in 1522.
-
Cannons and guns belonging to the Aceh Sultanate (in modern Indonesia).
Great Divergence
"Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason."
Ibrahim Muteferrika, Rational basis for the Politics of Nations (1731)[69]
The Great Divergence was the reason why European colonial powers militarily defeated preexisting Oriental powers like the Mughal Empire, starting from the wealthy Bengal Subah, Tipu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore, the Ottoman Empire and many smaller states in the pre-modern Greater Middle East, and initiated a period known as 'colonialism'.[69]
-
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II negotiates with the East India Company after being defeated during the Battle of Buxar.
-
Tsardom.
-
Combat during the Russo-Persian Wars.
-
French campaign in Egypt and Syria against the Mamluks and Ottomans.
Colonialism
Beginning with the 15th century, colonialism by European powers profoundly affected Muslim-majority societies in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim-dominated societies.[70]
A number of Muslim-majority societies reacted to Western powers with zealotry and thus initiating the rise of Pan-Islamism; or affirmed more traditionalist and inclusive cultural ideals; and in rare cases adopted modernity that was ushered by the colonial powers.[71][70]
The only Muslim-majority regions not to be colonized by the Europeans were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan.[citation needed] Turkey was one of the first colonial powers of the world with the Ottoman empire ruling several states for over 6 centuries.
-
The French conquest of Algeria, from 1830 to 1903
-
TheSpain and Morocco, from 1859 to 1860
-
French conquest of Algeria (1830–1857)
-
Anglo-Egyptian invasion of Sudan 1896–1899
-
TheRif Berbersof Morocco in 1909
Postcolonial era
In the 20th century, the end of the European colonial domination has led to creation of a number of nation states with significant Muslim populations. These states drew on Islamic traditions to varying degree and in various ways in organizing their legal, educational and economic systems.[70] The Times first documented the term "Muslim world" in 1912 when describing Pan-Islamism as a movement with power importance and cohesion born in Paris where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The article considered The position of the Amir; the effect of the Tripoli Campaign; Anglo-Russian action in Persia; and "Afghan Ambitions".[52]
A significant change in the Muslim world was the
In the 21st century, after the
By Sayyid Qutb's definition of Islam, the faith is "a complete divorce from jahiliyyah". He complained that American churches served as centers of community social life that were "very hard [to] distinguish from places of fun and amusement". For Qutb, Western society was the modern jahliliyyah. His understanding of the "Muslim world" and its "social order" was that, presented to the Western world as the result of practicing Islamic teachings, would impress "by the beauty and charm of true Islamic ideology". He argued that the values of the Enlightenment and its related precursor, the Scientific Revolution, "denies or suspends God's sovereignty on earth" and argued that strengthening "Islamic character" was needed "to abolish the negative influences of jahili life."[78]
Islam by country
This section possibly contains original research. (June 2018) |
As the Muslim world came into contact with secular ideals, societies responded in different ways. Some Muslim-majority countries are secular. Azerbaijan became the first secular republic in the Muslim world, between 1918 and 1920, before it was incorporated into the Soviet Union.[79][80][81][failed verification] Turkey has been governed as a secular state since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.[82] By contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a monarchial semi-secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah, Ruhollah Khomeini.[citation needed][83]
Some countries have declared Islam as the official state religion. In those countries, the legal code is largely secular. Only personal status matters pertaining to inheritance and marriage are governed by
Government and religion
Islamic states
Eight Islamic states have adopted Islam as the ideological foundation of state and constitution.
State religion
The following nineteen
- Algeria[86][95]
- Bahrain[86][96]
- Bangladesh[97]
- Comoros[98]
- Djibouti[99]
- Egypt[86][100]
- Iraq[86][101]
- Jordan[86][102]
- Kuwait[86][103]
- Libya[86][104]
- Malaysia[86][105]
- Maldives[86][106]
- Morocco[86][107]
- Palestine[108]
- Qatar[109]
- Somalia[86][110]
- Syria[111]
- Tunisia[86][112]
- United Arab Emirates[86][113]
Secular states
Twenty-two Secular states in the Muslim world have declared separation between civil/government affairs and religion.
- Albania[86][114]
- Azerbaijan[86][115]
- Bosnia and Herzegovina[116]
- Burkina Faso[86][117]
- Chad[86][118]
- Gambia[119][120]
- Guinea[86][121]
- Guinea-Bissau[122]
- Aceh province)[124]
- Kazakhstan[86][125]
- Kosovo[86][126]
- Kyrgyzstan[86][127]
- Mali[86][128]
- Niger[129]
- Nigeria[86]
- Senegal[86][130]
- Sierra Leone[131]
- Sudan[132]
- Tajikistan[86][133]
- Turkey[86][134]
- Turkmenistan[86][135]
- Uzbekistan[86][136]
Others
Muslim-minority states
According to the
- India: 200 million Muslims (14.6%)[141]
- Ethiopia: 34.7 million Muslims (31.3%)[142]
- China: 25–40 million Muslims (2–3%)[143]
- Tanzania: 19.4 million Muslims (35.2%)[144]
- Russia: 14–20 million Muslims (10–14%)[145]
- Ivory Coast: 12 million Muslims (42%)[146]
- DR Congo: 10 million Muslims (15%)[147]
- Philippines: 8–9 million Muslims (9–10%)
Politics
During much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century. The fast-growing interests of the Western world in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world in contemporary history.[149]
Islamism
In its original formulation, Islamism described an ideology seeking to revive Islam to its past assertiveness and glory,[153] purifying it of foreign elements, reasserting its role into "social and political as well as personal life";[154] and in particular "reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam" (i.e. Sharia).[155][156] [157][158] According to at least one observer (author Robin Wright), Islamist movements have "arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence", redefining "politics and even borders".[159]
Central and prominent figures in 20th-century Islamism include
Al-Banna and Maududi called for a "
At least one author (Graham E. Fuller) has argued for a broader notion of Islamism as a form of identity politics, involving "support for [Muslim] identity, authenticity, broader regionalism, revivalism, [and] revitalization of the community."[172] Islamists themselves prefer terms such as "Islamic movement",[173] or "Islamic activism" to "Islamism", objecting to the insinuation that Islamism is anything other than Islam renewed and revived.[174] In public and academic contexts,[175] the term "Islamism" has been criticized as having been given connotations of violence, extremism, and violations of human rights, by the Western mass media, leading to Islamophobia and stereotyping.[176]
Following theDemographics
More than 24.1% of the world's population is Muslim, with an estimated total of approximately 1.9 billion.[178][179][180][181][182] Muslims are the majority in 49 countries,[183][184] they speak hundreds of languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. The city of Karachi has the largest Muslim population in the world.[185][186]
Geography
Because the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' are disputed, since no country is homogeneously Muslim, and there is no way to determine at what point a Muslim minority in a country is to be considered 'significant' enough, there is no consensus on how to define the Muslim world geographically.[54][55][5] The only rule of thumb for inclusion which has some support, is that countries need to have a Muslim population of more than 50%.[54][5]
In 2010, 73% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the majority, while 27% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the minority. India's Muslim population is the world's largest Muslim-minority population in the world (11% of the world's Muslim population).[184] Jones (2005) defines a "large minority" as being between 30% and 50%, which described nine countries in 2000, namely Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, North Macedonia, and Tanzania.[5]
Religion
Islam
The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah ("faithful") should be governed, and the role of the
The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, between 87 and 90%, are Sunni.[188] Shias and other groups make up the rest, about 10–13% of overall Muslim population. The countries with the highest concentration of Shia populations are: Iran – 89%,[189] Azerbaijan – 65%,[190] Iraq – 60%,[191] Bahrain – 60%, Yemen – 35%,[192] Turkey – 10%,[193][194] Lebanon – 27%, Syria – 13%, Afghanistan – 10%, Pakistan – 10%,[195][196][197][198][199][200][201][202][203] and India – 10%.[204]
The Kharijite Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population.[206]
-
Turkish Muslims at the Eyüp Sultan Mosque on Eid al-Adha
-
Friday prayer for Sunni Muslims in Dhaka, Bangladesh
Islamic schools and branches
The first centuries of Islam gave rise to three major
).The major Sunni madhhabs are
The major
Similarly,
Among these numerous branches, only
-
Ibadis living in the M'zabvalley in Algerian Sahara
-
Zaydi Imamsruled in Yemen until 1962
-
Most of the inhabitants of theIsmailiMuslims
-
Children read Qur'an in Indonesia.
-
Muslim beggars stalk a car in Nigeria.
-
People pray together in the mosque in Russia.
-
People move close to the Muslim food corner in China.
Other religions
There are sizeable non-Muslim minorities in many Muslim-majority countries, includes,
.The Muslim world is home to some of the world's most
In 2018, the
In 2010, the Pew Forum study finds that Bangladesh (13.5 million), Indonesia (4 million), Pakistan (3.3 million) and Malaysia (1.7 million) has a sizeable
-
Egypt has one of the largest Christian population in the Muslim world[233]
-
Bangladesh has the largest Hindu population in the Muslim world
-
Turkey has the largest Jewish population in the Muslim world[234]
Literacy and education
The literacy rate in the Muslim world varies. Azerbaijan is in second place in the Index of Literacy of World Countries. Some members such as Iran, Kuwait, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have over 97% literacy rates, whereas literacy rates are the lowest in Mali, Afghanistan, Chad and other parts of Africa. Several Muslim-majority countries, such as Turkey, Iran and Egypt have a high rate of citable scientific publications.[235][236]
In 2015, the International Islamic News Agency reported that nearly 37% of the population of the Muslim world is unable to read or write, basing that figure on reports from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.[237] In Egypt, the largest Muslim-majority Arab country, the youth female literacy rate exceeds that for males.[238] Lower literacy rates are more prevalent in South Asian countries such as in Afghanistan and Pakistan, but are rapidly increasing.[239] In the Eastern Middle East, Iran has a high level of youth literacy at 98%,[240] but Iraq's youth literacy rate has sharply declined from 85% to 57% during the American-led war and subsequent occupation.[241] Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country in the world, has a 99% youth literacy rate.[242]
A 2011 Pew Research Center showed that at the time about 36% of all Muslims had no formal schooling, with only 8% having graduate and post-graduate degrees.[243] The highest of years of schooling among Muslim-majority countries found in Uzbekistan (11.5), Kuwait (11.0) and Kazakhstan (10.7).[243] In addition, the average of years of schooling in countries in which Muslims are the majority is 6.0 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (7.7 years of schooling).[243] In the youngest age (25–34) group surveyed, Young Muslims have the lowest average levels of education of any major religious group, with an average of 6.7 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (8.6 years of schooling).[243] The study found that Muslims have a significant amount of gender inequality in educational attainment, since Muslim women have an average of 4.9 years of schooling, compared to an average of 6.4 years of schooling among Muslim men.[243]
-
Young school girls in Paktia Province of Afghanistan.
-
A primary classroom in Niger.
-
Schoolgirls in Gaza lining up for class, 2009.
Refugees
According to the
Since then Muslim-majority countries have absorbed refugees from recent conflicts, including
Culture
Throughout history, Muslim cultures have been diverse ethnically, linguistically and regionally.[247] According to M. M. Knight, this diversity includes diversity in beliefs, interpretations and practices and communities and interests. Knight says perception of Muslim world among non-Muslims is usually supported through introductory literature about Islam, mostly present a version as per scriptural view which would include some prescriptive literature and abstracts of history as per authors own point of views, to which even many Muslims might agree, but that necessarily would not reflect Islam as lived on the ground, 'in the experience of real human bodies'.[248]
Classical culture
-
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni receiving a richly decorated robe of honor from the caliph al-Qadir in 1000. Miniature from the Rashid al-Din's Jami' al-tawarikh
-
Farrukh Yassar
-
Abbas I meet with Vali Muhammad Khan
-
Mir Sayyid Ali, a scholar writing a commentary on theMughal Emperor Shah Jahan
-
Portrait of a painter during the reign ofMehmet II
-
APersianminiature of Shah Abu'l Ma‘ali, a scholar
-
Layla and Majnun studying together, from a Persian miniature painting
The term "
Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations.[255]
Ceramics
Between the 8th and 18th centuries, the use of ceramic glaze was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaborate pottery.[256] Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another contribution was the development of fritware, originating from 9th-century Iraq.[257] Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).[258]
Literature
-
Hadiqatus-suada byFuzûlî
-
The story of Princess Parizade and the Magic Tree.[259]
-
Cassim in the Cave by Maxfield Parrish.
-
The Magic carpet.
The best known work of fiction from the Islamic world is
A famous[
Theologus Autodidactus,
A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by
Philosophy
One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture."[283] Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.[283] The Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings were concerned with various subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbook The Canon of Medicine was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. He also wrote The Book of Healing, an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia.[citation needed]
One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries affected the rise of secular thought in Europe.[284] He also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence".[285]
Another figure from the Islamic Golden Age, Avicenna, also founded his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands.[286] He was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence.[citation needed]
Yet another influential philosopher who had an influence on
Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism.[293]
Other influential Muslim philosophers include
Sciences
Sciences |
|
|
|
|
Muslim physicians contributed to the field of medicine, including the subjects of
In astronomy,
Some most famous scientists from the medieval Islamic world include
Technology
In technology, the Muslim world adopted papermaking from China.[299] The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via predominantly Islamic countries,[300] where formulas for pure potassium nitrate[301][302] were developed.
Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along which Muslim-majority countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, Genoa and Catalonia. The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Islamic states between China and Europe. The emergence of major economic empires with technological resources after the conquests of Timur (Tamerlane) and the resurgence of the Timurid Renaissance include the Mali Empire and the India's Bengal Sultanate in particular, a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with".[303]
Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of
Arts
The term "Islamic art and architecture" denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations.[307][308]
Architecture
Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Islamic world encompasses a wide geographic area historically ranging from western Africa and Europe to eastern Asia. Certain commonalities are shared by Islamic architectural styles across all these regions, but over time different regions developed their own styles according to local materials and techniques, local dynasties and patrons, different regional centers of artistic production, and sometimes different religious affiliations.[309][310]
Early Islamic architecture was influenced by
Islamic architecture |
|
|
|
|
Aniconism
No Islamic visual images or depictions of
Arabesque
Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as
Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.[319] The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into European architecture.[320]
-
Example of an Arabesque
-
Example of an Arabesque
-
Example of an Arabesque
Girih
Girih (Persian: گره, "knot", also written gereh[321]) are decorative Islamic geometric patterns used in architecture and handicraft objects, consisting of angled lines that form an interlaced strapwork pattern.
Girih decoration is believed to have been inspired by Syrian Roman knotwork patterns from the second century. The earliest girih dates from around 1000 CE, and the artform flourished until the 15th century. Girih patterns can be created in a variety of ways, including the traditional straightedge and compass construction; the construction of a grid of polygons; and the use of a set of girih tiles with lines drawn on them: the lines form the pattern. Patterns may be elaborated by the use of two levels of design, as at the 1453 Darb-e Imam shrine. Square repeating units of known patterns can be copied as templates, and historic pattern books may have been intended for use in this way.
The 15th century-
Girih tiles
-
The subdivision rule used to generate the Girih pattern on the spandrel.
-
compass and straight edge.
Islamic calligraphy
The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to the
However, Islamic calligraphy is not limited to strictly religious subjects, objects, or spaces. Like all Islamic art, it encompasses a diverse array of works created in a wide variety of contexts.[326] The prevalence of calligraphy in Islamic art is not directly related to its non-figural tradition; rather, it reflects the centrality of the notion of writing and written text in Islam.[327]
Islamic calligraphy developed from two major styles: Kufic and Naskh. There are several variations of each, as well as regionally specific styles. Arabic or Persian calligraphy has also been incorporated into modern art, beginning with the post-colonial period in the Middle East, as well as the more recent style of calligraffiti.[328]-
Kufic script froman early Qur'an manuscript, 7th century. (Surah 7: 86–87)
-
Bismallahcalligraphy.
-
Islamic calligraphy represented for amulet of sailors in the Ottoman Empire.
-
Islamic calligraphy praising Ali.
-
Modern Islamic calligraphy representing various planets.
Calendar
Two calendars are used all over the Muslim world. One is a lunar calendar that is most widely used among Muslims. The other one is a solar calendar officially used in Iran and Afghanistan.
Islamic lunar calendar
The Hijri calendar (
) but the religious calendar is the Hijri one.This calendar enumerates the
Solar Hijri calendar
The
The ancient Iranian Solar calendar is one of the oldest calendars in the world, as well as the most accurate solar calendar in use today. Since the calendar uses astronomical calculation for determining the
Each of the twelve months corresponds with a
Women
According to Riada Asimovic Akyol while Muslim women's experiences differs a lot by location and personal situations such as family upbringing, class and education;
-
A Kazakh wedding ceremony in a mosque
-
Muslim girls at Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta
-
A tribal delegation in Chad
-
Minangkabau people (Padang, West Sumatra) reciting Al-Qur'an
-
Muslim girls walking for school in Bangladesh
See also
- Arabization
- Arab world
- Glossary of Islam
- History of the Arabs
- History of Islam
- Index of Islam-related articles
- Outline of Islam
- Spread of Islam
- Islam by country
- Islamic studies
- Islam and other religions
- Pan-Islamism
- Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition
- Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
- Sīrah
- List of largest cities in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member countries
- OPEC
References
Notes
- Jewish era.
- ^ exact dates depend on which variant of the Islamic calendar is followed.
- AH (30 July 2022 CE), this calendar is no longer used by the government of Afghanistan, after its switch to the Lunar Hijri calendar.[341]
Citations
- ^ Waldman, Marilyn R.; Zeghal, Malika (2009). "Islamic world". Britannica. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 29 January 2017.
- ISBN 9780195305135.
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World (OEIW) deals with all aspects of Islam—the world's second largest and fastest-growing religion—and the societies in which it exists, including their religion, politics, economics, everyday life, culture, and thought
- ^ ISBN 9781933782652.
The Islamic world is generally defined contemporaneously as consisting of nation-states whose population contains a majority of Muslims. [...] in the contemporary era, the term Islamic world now includes not only the traditional heartlands of Islam, but also Europe and North America, both of which have sizeable minority Muslim populations
- ^ Scott Carpenter, Soner Cagaptay (2 June 2009). "What Muslim World?". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
- ^ ISBN 9781850654933. Archivedfrom the original on 20 June 2020. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
- ^ "Islam". HISTORY. Archived from the original on 3 May 2020. Retrieved 22 July 2020.
- ISBN 9781784710736– via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9.
- ^ "Economies of the ummah". Archived from the original on 16 December 2017. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
- ^ "Muslim countries make thin contribution to global economy". 22 September 2016. Archived from the original on 13 August 2018. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
- ^ Lipka, Michael; Hackett, Conrad (6 April 2017). "Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 23 August 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ^ "Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center". Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 27 November 2023.
- ^ "Region: Middle East-North Africa". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
- ^ "The Global Religious Landscape" (PDF). Pew. December 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015.
- ^ "Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. Archived from the original on 20 March 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
- ^ "Region: Asia-Pacific". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
- ^ Burke, Daniel (29 July 2016). "The moment American Muslims were waiting for". CNN. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
- ^ "Region: Sub-Saharan Africa". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
- ^ "Region: Asia-Pacific". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
- ^ Kettani, Houssain (2010). "Muslim Population in Oceania: 1950-2020". Pacific Data Hub Microdata Library. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023.
- ^ "Region: Europe". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 April 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
- ^ "Region: Americas". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 April 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
- ^ Kington, Tom (31 March 2008). "Number of Muslims ahead of Catholics, says Vatican". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 September 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
- ^ "Muslim Population". IslamicPopulation.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
- ^ "Field Listing Religions". Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
- ^ * "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 7 October 2009. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims.
- Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide Archived 16 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
- "Sunni". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 12 October 2014. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.
- "Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 24 December 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
Sunni Islam accounts for over 85% of the world's Muslim population...
- ^ See
- "Shiʿi". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 October 2019. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
In the early 21st century some 10–13 percent of the world's 1.6 billion Muslims were Shiʿi.
- "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 7 October 2009. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 15% of the world's Muslim population.
- "Shia". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 December 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2011.
Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 150 million followers who comprise around 10% of all Muslims worldwide...
- Roshandel, Jalil (2011). Iran, Israel and the United States. Praeger Security International. p. 15. ISBN 9780313386985. Archivedfrom the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 8 March 2020.
The majority of the world's Islamic population, which is Sunni, accounts for over 85 percent of the Islamic population; the other 10 to 15 percent is Shia.
- "Shiʿi". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 October 2019. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
- ^ Benakis, Theodoros (13 January 2014). "Islamophoobia in Europe!". New Europe. Brussels. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims – those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.
- ^ Longton, Gary Gurr (2014). "Isis Jihadist group made me wonder about non-denominational Muslims". The Sentinel. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
THE appalling and catastrophic pictures of the so-called new extremist Isis Jihadist group made me think about someone who can say I am a Muslim of a non-denominational standpoint, and to my surprise/ignorance, such people exist. Online, I found something called the people's mosque, which makes itself clear that it's 100 per cent non-denominational and most importantly, 100 per cent non-judgmental.
- ^ Kirkham, Bri (2015). "Indiana Blood Center cancels 'Muslims for Life' blood drive". Archived from the original on 25 November 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as a non-denominational Muslim, and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.
- ISBN 9781476733920.
Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims
- ^ "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 4 May 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
- ISBN 9780415448512.
- ^ Diplomat, Akhilesh Pillalamarri, The. "How South Asia Will Save Global Islam". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Middle East-North Africa Overview". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 7 October 2009. Archived from the original on 28 January 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
- ^ "Region: Middle East-North Africa". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 25 July 2013. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
- ^ "Region: Sub-Saharan Africa". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
- ^ Rowland, Richard H. "CENTRAL ASIA ii. Demography". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. 2. pp. 161–164. Archived from the original on 16 September 2018. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
- ^ "Middle East :: Azerbaijan — The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
- ^ "The Many Languages of Islam in the Caucasus". Eurasianet. Archived from the original on 21 July 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
- ^ Yusuf, Imtiyaz. "The Middle East and Muslim Southeast Asia: Implications of the Arab Spring". Oxford Islamic Studies. Archived from the original on 20 March 2017.
- ^ "India invited as 'Guest of Honour' to OIC meet, Sushma Swaraj to attend". @businessline. 23 February 2019. Archived from the original on 16 March 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2019.
- ^ "Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population", The National, 21 April 2018, archived from the original on 14 January 2019, retrieved 13 January 2019
- ^ "Muslim Population by Country". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
- ^ "Islam in Russia". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 11 January 2019. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
- ^ Whitehead, Nadia (25 December 2015). "A Religious Forecast For 2050: Atheism Is Down, Islam Is Rising". NPR.
This growth has to do with the relatively young age of the Muslim population as well as high fertility rates.
- ^ "Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
- ^ "Main Factors Driving Population Growth". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2018.
- ^ Burke, Daniel (4 April 2015). "The world's fastest-growing religion is ..." CNN. Archived from the original on 15 May 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
- ^ Lippman, Thomas W. (7 April 2008). "No God But God". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on 5 May 2019. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions, while modifying some and rejecting others.
- ^ "The Future of the Global Muslim Population". 27 January 2011.
there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith
- ^ a b Pan-Islamism In India, FROM A CORRESPONDENT IN INDIA, Tuesday, 3 September 1912, The Times, Issue: 39994
- ^ Carpenter, Scott; Cagaptay, Soner (2 June 2009). "What Muslim World?". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
- ^ ISBN 9781448131617. Archivedfrom the original on 25 April 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
- ^ a b Hitchens, Christopher (2007). "Hitchens '07: Danish Muhammad Cartoons". Christopher Hitchens and Tim Rutten in discussion. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
21 ambassadors from Muslim – so-called "Muslim states". How do they dare to call themselves "Muslim"? In what sense is Egypt a "Muslim" country? You can't denominate a country as religious.
: 4:35 - ^ Gert Jan Geling (12 January 2017). "Ook na 1400 jaar kan de islam heus verdwijnen". Trouw (in Dutch). Retrieved 3 October 2017.
"Many people, including myself, are often guilty of using terms such as 'Muslim countries', or the 'Islamic world', as if Islam has always been there, and always will be. And that is completely unclear. (...) If the current trend [of apostasy] continues, at some point a large section of the population may no longer be religious. How 'Islamic' would that still make the 'Islamic world'?
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-17587-6. Archivedfrom the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
- ^ Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "islam. §7. Sektevorming". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.
- ^ Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "Omajjaden §1. De Spaanse tak". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.
- ^ The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pp. 227–228
- ISBN 81-89118-06-4
- ^ Srivastava, Ashirvadi Lal (1929). The Sultanate Of Delhi 711–1526 AD. Shiva Lal Agarwala & Company.
- ^ Evans, Charles T. "The Gunpowder Empires". Northern Virginia Community College. Archived from the original on 26 May 2011. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
- ^ "The Islamic Gunpowder Empires, 1300–1650". Civilization Past & Present. Pearson Education. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
- ^ Islamic and European Expansion: The Forging of a Global Order, Michael Adas, Temple University Press (Philadelphia, PA), 1993.
- ISBN 9781783475728.
- ISBN 9264104143, pages 259–261
- ^ Unknown (1590–95). "Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Akbar's attack on Ranthambhor Fort". the Akbarnama. Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
- ^ a b Ferguson, Niall. "The 6 killer apps of prosperity". TED.com. Archived from the original on 13 February 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
- ^ a b c "Islamic world". Britannica. Archived from the original on 23 January 2019. Retrieved 23 January 2019.
- ISBN 9780739142943.
- ^ LCCN 2008020716. Archivedfrom the original on 27 December 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.
- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. London and New York City: I.B. Tauris. p. 172.
- ^ from the original on 12 July 2021. Retrieved 12 July 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-9055-0.
- ISBN 978-0415664523.
- ^ ISBN 9780231526623. Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2021.
- ^ "93 years pass since establishment of first democratic republic in the east – Azerbaijan Democratic Republic". Azerbaijan Press Agency. Archived from the original on 21 November 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-8305-0076-5.
- ISBN 978-0-521-52245-8. Archivedfrom the original on 17 January 2018. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
- ISBN 9781402098949. Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2021 – via Google Books.
- ^ 1906 Constitution of Imperial Iran: Article 1 – "The official religion of Persia is Islám, according to the orthodox Já'farí doctrine of the Ithna 'Ashariyya (Church of the Twelve Imáms), which faith 1 the Sháh of Persia must profess and promote."
- ^ "Islam: Governing Under Sharia". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 10 September 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2021.
- ^ "Amman Message". Archived from the original on 9 August 2014. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai "Islamic Countries Of The World". WorldAtlas. 21 February 2018. Archived from the original on 27 September 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
- ^ "Constitution of Afghanistan 2004". Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Brunei Darussalam's Constitution of 1959 with Amendments through 2006" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 June 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
- ^ "Islamic Republic of Iran Constitution". Archived from the original on 25 February 2008. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Mauritania's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2012" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 May 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Oman's Constitution of 1996 with Amendments through 2011" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan". Archived from the original on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
- ^ "Basic Law of Saudi Arabia". Archived from the original on 26 December 2011. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
- ^ "Yemen's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2001" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 May 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Constitution of the Kingdom of Bahrain (2002)". Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh | 2A. The state religion". bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd.
- ^ "Comoros's Constitution of 2001 with Amendments through 2009" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 May 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Djibouti's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2010". Article 1, Constitution of 1992. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
- ^ "Egypt's Constitution of 2014" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 May 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Constitution of Iraq" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2016.
- ^ "Jordan country report" Archived 3 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, The World Factbook, U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 24 August 2012
- ^ "International Religious Freedom Report". US State Department. 2002. Archived from the original on 8 November 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
- ^ "Libya's Constitution of 2011 with Amendments through 2012" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Constitution of Malaysia" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Constitution of the Republic of Maldives 2008" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 May 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Morocco's Constitution of 2011" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "BASIC LAW - OF THE PALESTINIAN NATIONAL AUTHORITY". Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- ^ "Qatar's Constitution of 2003" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Provisional Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia". Archived from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Syria". 2 June 2022.
- ^ "Tunisia's Constitution of 2014" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "United Arab Emirates's Constitution of 1971 with Amendments through 2009" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2016. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Albania – Constitution". ICL. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ "Article 7.1 of Constitution" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "United States Department of State". United States Department of State. 12 May 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
- ^ "Article 31 of Constitution". Archived from the original on 9 October 2006.
- ^ "Article 1 of Constitution". Archived from the original on 9 October 2006.
- ^ "Gambia (The) 1996(rev.2004)". constituteproject.org. Retrieved 14 August 2023.
- ^ "2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: The Gambia". 2022.
- ^ Article 1 of Constitution Archived 13 September 2004 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Article 1 of Constitution". Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- ^ "Indonesia Risks Factors in Terrorism". pssat.ugm.ac.id. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
- ^ "2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Indonesia". U.S. Department of State. 2022.
- ^ "The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan". Official site of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
- ^ Republic of Kosovo constitution Archived 21 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Republic of Kosovo constitution,
- ^ "Article 1 of Constitution". Archived from the original on 4 February 2007.
- ^ "Preamble of Constitution" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2012.
- ^ "Niger". United States Department of State. 1 December 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
- ^ "Senegal". U.S. Department of State. 14 September 2007. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ISBN 978-1-4408-3933-7.
- ^ "Sudan ends 30 years of Islamic law by separating religion, state". gulfnews.com. 6 September 2020. Archived from the original on 6 September 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2020.
- ^ "Tajikistan's Constitution of 1994 with Amendments through 2003" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "Article 2 of Constitution". Archived from the original on 1 December 2010. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ "Constitution of Turkmenistan". Archived from the original on 14 April 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ "Uzbekistan's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2011" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "2019 Report on International Religious Freedom: Lebanon". US Department of State. 2019.
The constitution also states there shall be a "just and equitable balance" in the apportionment of cabinet and high-level civil service positions among the major religious groups, a provision amended by the Taif Agreement, which ended the country's civil war and mandated proportional representation between Christians and Muslims in parliament, the cabinet, and other senior government positions.
- ^ "What is each country's second-largest religious group?". Pew Research Center. 22 June 2015. Archived from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 22 June 2015.
- ^ "Muslim-Majority Countries". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 20 November 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
- ^ "MAPPING THE GLOBAL MUSLIM POPULATION" (PDF). Pew Research Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2023.
- ^ "Muslim Population in India - Total Muslims in India".
- ^ "Ethiopia". 21 February 2023.
- ^ Byler, Darren (11 April 2019). "China's hi-tech war on its Muslim minority". The Guardian.
- ^ "Tanzania". 21 February 2023.
- ^ "Russia Will be One-Third Muslim in 15 Years, Chief Mufti Predicts". 5 March 2019.
- ^ "Technical Difficulties".
- ^ "The Muslims of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Victims of poverty, ignorance and Christianization". 17 January 2022.
- ^ "Benazir Bhutto: Daughter of Tragedy" by Muhammad Najeeb, Hasan Zaidi, Saurabh Shulka and S. Prasannarajan, India Today, 7 January 2008
- ^ "A Wake-Up Call: Milestones of Islamic History – IslamOnline.net – Art & Culture". 17 February 2011. Archived from the original on 17 February 2011.
- ^ "Islamism". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
- ^ .
- ^ Soage, Ana Belén. "Introduction to Political Islam." Religion Compass 3.5 (2009): 887–96.
- ^ Burgat, François, "The Islamic Movement in North Africa", U of Texas Press, 1997, pp. 39–41, 67–71, 309
- S2CID 145201910.
- ^ Byers, Dylan (5 April 2013). "AP Stylebook revises 'Islamist' use". Politico. Retrieved 6 February 2023.
- ^ Shepard, W. E. Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism: A Translation and Critical Analysis of Social Justice in Islam. Leiden, New York: E.J. Brill. (1996). p. 40
- ISSN 1469-0764.
- S2CID 14540501.
- ^ a b c Wright, Robin (10 January 2015). "A Short History of Islamism". Newsweek. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
- .
- ^ Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p. 120
- .
- ISBN 978-0-19-068946-9.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ISBN 0-415-30173-4.
- ISBN 0-8014-3108-5.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ISBN 0-8014-3108-5.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ISBN 978-0-19-068946-9.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ISBN 978-0-520-26839-5.
- ^ a b Roy, Failure of Political Islam, 1994: p. 24
- ^ Hamid, Shadi (1 October 2015). "What most people get wrong about political Islam".
- ^ Nugent, Elizabeth (23 June 2014). "What do we mean by Islamist?". Washington Post. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
- ^ Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p. 21
- ^ Rashid Ghannouchi (31 October 2013). "How credible is the claim of the failure of political Islam?". MEMO. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
- ^ "Understanding Islamism" (PDF). International Crisis Group. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2013.
- ^ Emin Poljarevic (2015). "Islamism". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 1 February 2017.
Islamism is one of many sociopolitical concepts continuously contested in scholarly literature. It is a neologism debated in both Muslim and non-Muslim public and academic contexts. The term "Islamism" at the very least represents a form of social and political activism, grounded in an idea that public and political life should be guided by a set of Islamic principles. In other words, Islamists are those who believe that Islam has an important role to play in organizing a Muslim-majority society and who seek to implement this belief.
- ISBN 9780195305135.
The term "Islamism/Islamist" has come into increasing use in recent years to denote the views of those Muslims who claim that Islam, or more specifically, the Islamic sharīʿah, provides guidance for all areas of human life, individual and social, and who therefore call for an "Islamic State" or an "Islamic Order." [...] Today it is one of the recognized alternatives to "fundamentalist", along with "political Islam" in particular. [...] Current terminology usually distinguishes between "Islam," [...] and "Islamism", referring to the ideology of those who tend to signal openly, in politics, their Muslim religion. [...] the term has often acquired a quasi-criminal connotation close to that of political extremism, religious sectarianism, or bigotry. In Western mainstream media, "Islamists" are those who want to establish, preferably through violent means, an "Islamic state" or impose sharīʿah (Islamic religious law)—goals that are often perceived merely as a series of violations of human rights or the rights of women. In the Muslim world, insiders use the term as a positive reference. In the academic sphere, although it is still debated, the term designates a more complex phenomenon.
- ^ Roy, Olivier (16 April 2012). "The New Islamists". foreignpolicy.com. Archived from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
- ^ "Executive Summary". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
- ^ "The World Factbook". CIA Factbook. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2010.
- ^ "Muslim Population by Country". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
- ^ "Preface", The Future of the Global Muslim Population, Pew Research Center, 27 January 2011, archived from the original on 25 July 2013, retrieved 6 August 2014
- ^ "Executive Summary". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 5 August 2013. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
- ^ "Muslim-Majority Countries". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 20 November 2011. Retrieved 5 January 2012.
- ^ a b c Analysis (19 December 2011). "Global religious landscape" (PDF). Pewforum.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
- ISBN 9780190869786.
... With a population of over 23 million Karachi is also the world's largest Muslim city, the world's seventh largest conurbation ...
- ISBN 9781440835575.
Karachi is the largest city in Pakistan, the second-largest city in the world when "city" is defined by official municipal limits, the largest city in the Muslim world, and the world's seventh-largest metropolitan area.
- ^ "Comparison Chart of Sunni and Shia Islam". ReligionFacts. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ^ ANALYSIS (7 October 2009). "Mapping the Global Muslim Population". Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ^ "The World Factbook". Archived from the original on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
- ^ "Administrative Department of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan – Presidential Library – Religion" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2011. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
- OCLC 52362778.
- ^ "The population of Shia: How many Shia are there in the world?". Archived from the original on 29 July 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2016.
- ^ "Shi'a". ucsm.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 10 January 2011.
- ^ "Pew Forum on Religious & Public life". http://www.pewforum.org/ Archived 4 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Country Profile: Pakistan" (PDF). Library of Congress Country Studies on Pakistan. Library of Congress. February 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 July 2005. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
Religion: The overwhelming majority of the population (96.3 percent) is Muslim, of whom approximately 97 percent are Sunni and 3 percent Shia.
- ^ "The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity". Pew Research Center. 9 August 2012. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
On the other hand, in Pakistan, where 6% of the survey respondents identify as Shia, Sunni attitudes are more mixed: 50% say Shias are Muslims, while 41% say they are not.
- ^ "Religions: Muslim 95% (Sunni 75%, Shia 20%), other (includes Christian and Hindu) 5%". Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook on Pakistan. 2010. Archived from the original on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
- ^ Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 14 December 2015. Retrieved 7 October 2015.
- ^ "Pakistan, Islam in". Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 18 June 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
Approximately 97 percent of Pakistanis are Muslim. The majority are Sunnis following the Hanafi school of Islamic law. Between 10 and 15 percent are Shias, mostly Twelvers.
- ^ "Pakistan – International Religious Freedom Report 2008". United States Department of State. 19 September 2008. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
The majority of Muslims in the country are Sunni, with a Shi'a minority ranging between 10 to 15 percent.
- ^ "The Trouble With Madrassahs". 16 June 2015. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ "Early Warning Signs of Shia Genocide in Pakistan". Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ Hussain, Javed; Ahmad, Jibran (26 July 2013). "Suicide bombs kill 39 near Shi'ite mosques in Pakistan". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ "Shiite Islam". Shianumbers.com. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
- ^ a b c d "Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
- ISBN 9781118273913. Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2021 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 9780195305135.
- madh'habs and its terminology dictionary), Ensar Publications, Istanbul, 2011.
- ISBN 9781135980795.
Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
- ISBN 9780030525964.
Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above..
- Tariqat, pp. 14–15, Beirut, 1873.)
- ^ "Alevi İslam Din Hizmetleri Başkanlığı". Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-1888-0.
- Ahmet Yesevi Cad. No: 290, Yenibosna / Istanbul, Turkey.
- ISBN 9781538124185.
- ISBN 9781444397291.
- ISBN 0-7486-0455-3, p. 4
- ISBN 978-0-226-07080-3.
- ISBN 978-0-19-829388-0. Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
- ISBN 9781351510721.
- ISBN 9781351510721.
Christian contributions to art, culture, and literature in the Arab-Islamic world; Christian contributions education and social advancement in the region.
- ^ "Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population" (PDF). Pew Research Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 August 2019.
- ISBN 9783857100406.
There are some 30 million Christians who live in countries with Muslim majorities. The largest number live in Indonesia, some 15 million ...
- S2CID 149246793.
- ^ Staff, Toi (8 September 2018). "Ahead of Rosh Hashanah, figures show 14.7 million Jews around the globe". Times of Israel.
- ^ "Global Jewish population reaches 14.7 million". The Jerusalem Post. 9 September 2018.
- ^ "VI- November 30: Commemorating the expulsion of Jews from Arab lands".
- ^ "Jewish Population Rises to 15.2 million Worldwide". Jewish agency. 15 September 2021.
- ISBN 9781000677782.
Today Turkish Jewry remains the largest Jewish community in the Muslim world.
- ISBN 978-0-7618-4846-2.
- ISBN 9780429962004.
Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.
- ^ "Zoroastrianism i. History to the Arab Conquest – Encyclopaedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
- ISBN 9780812202830.
- ISBN 9781000677782.
Today Turkish Jewry remains the largest Jewish community in the Muslim world.
- ^ SCI. "Scimago Journal & Country Rank". Scimago Journal. Archived from the original on 31 October 2017. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
- ^ "Science-Matrix: 30 Years in Science – Secular Movements in Knowledge Creation" (PDF). Science-matrix.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ^ "Nearly 40% of Muslim world's population unable read or write: IINA Report". International Islamic News Agency. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
- ^ "Egypt Literacy rate". Archived from the original on 6 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- ^ "Pakistan Literacy rate". Archived from the original on 6 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- ^ "Iran Literacy rate". Archived from the original on 10 July 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- ^ "Iraq Literacy rate". Archived from the original on 6 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- ^ "Indonesia Literacy rate". Archived from the original on 6 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- ^ a b c d e "Religion and Education Around the World" (PDF). Pew Research Center. 19 December 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
- ^ "OIC to hold conference on refugees in Muslim world in Turkmenistan". Zaman. 24 April 2012. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012.
- ^ "UN Calls Syrian Refugee Crisis Worst Since Rwandan Genocide". ABC News. 17 July 2013. Archived from the original on 27 July 2013. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ "Rohingya widows find safe haven in Bangladesh camp". Reuters. 7 December 2017. Archived from the original on 4 November 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
- ^ Melikian, Souren (4 November 2011). "'Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
- ISBN 978-1-101-98349-2. Archivedfrom the original on 22 February 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
- ISBN 0-8147-8023-7.
- S2CID 144315162.
- ISBN 81-7450-395-1
- ISBN 0-8157-3283-X
- ISBN 978-1-136-95960-8. Retrieved 26 August 2012.
- ISBN 9780814780237. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ISBN 0-8157-3283-X
- ^ Mason (1995) p. 1
- ^ Mason (1995) p. 5
- ^ Mason (1995) p. 7
- ^ The Thousand and One Nights; Or, The Arabian Night's Entertainments - David Claypoole Johnston - Google Books Archived 17 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Books.google.com.pk. Retrieved on 23 September 2013.
- ^ Marzolph (2007). "Arabian Nights". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. I. Leiden: Brill.
- ^ a b Grant & Clute, p. 51
- ISBN 0-87054-076-9
- ^ Grant & Clute, p 52
- ^ Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher Archived 6 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
- ^ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288) Archived 4 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine", pp. 95–101, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame.
- ^ Muhammad b. Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufayl. Philosophus autodidactus, sive Epistola Abi Jaafar ebn Tophail de Hai ebn Yokdhan Archived 4 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine: in qua ostenditur, quomodo ex inferiorum contemplatione ad superiorum notitiam ratio humana ascendere possit. E Theatro Sheldoniano, excudebat Joannes Owens, 1700.
- ^ Ala-al-din abu Al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi. The Theologus autodidactus of Ibn al-Nafīs. Clarendon P., 1968
- ISBN 9781139828420– via Google Books.
- ^ Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher Archived 6 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
- ^ Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
- ISBN 0-7591-0190-6.
- ^ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357–77 [369].
- ^ a b Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts Archived 17 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 22 March 2003.
- ^ ISBN 0-19-820291-1.
- ^ The Inferno. Dante Alighieri. Bickers and Son, 1874.
- ^ See Inferno (Dante); Eighth Circle (Fraud)
- ^ Miguel Asín Palacios, Julián Ribera, Real Academia Española. La Escatologia Musulmana en la Divina Comedia. E. Maestre, 1819.
- ^ I. Heullant-Donat and M.-A. Polo de Beaulieu, "Histoire d'une traduction," in Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet, Latin edition and French translation by Gisèle Besson and Michèle Brossard-Dandré, Collection Lettres Gothiques, Le Livre de Poche, 1991, p. 22 with note 37.
- ^ Tr. The Book of Muhammad's Ladder
- ^ Transliterated as Maometto.
- ^ The Review Archived 22 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: May–Dec. 1919, Volume 1. The National Weekly Corp., 1919. p. 128.
- ^ Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor, Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare's Globe (cf. Mayor of London (2006), Muslims in London Archived 26 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 14–15, Greater London Authority)
- ^ a b "Islamic Philosophy" Archived 6 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1998)
- ISBN 1-85168-269-4.
- ^ Irwin, Jones (Autumn 2002). "Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam". The Philosopher. LXXXX (2).
- ISBN 0-8147-8023-7.
- ^ Russell (1994), pp. 224–62,
- ISBN 90-04-09300-1.
- ^ Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufail and Léon Gauthier (1981), Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan, p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée.
- ^ Russell (1994), pp. 224–39
- ^ Russell (1994) p. 227
- ^ Russell (1994), p. 247
- OCLC 224496901.
- ^ S.R.W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
- ^ Al-Khalili, Jim (4 January 2009). "BBC News". Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
- ISBN 0-691-12067-6.
- ^ Peter J. Lu, Harvard's Office of News and Public Affairs Archived 14 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Turner, H. (1997) pp. 136–38
- ^ a b Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), pp. 1–30 [10].
- ^ Arming the Periphery. Emrys Chew, 2012. p. 1823.
- ^ Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources Archived 26 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine, History of Science and Technology in Islam.
- ^ Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries Archived 26 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine, History of Science and Technology in Islam.
- ISBN 978-81-8069-149-2. Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.
- ^ Ahmad Y. al-Hassan (1976). Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, pp. 34–35. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo.
- ^ Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering Archived 18 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), pp. 1–30.
- ^ Ettinghausen (2003), p. 3
- ^ "Islamic Art and Architecture", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
- ISBN 9789004161658.
- ^ a b Bloom & Blair 2009, "Architecture".
- ^ Petersen 1996, p. 295 : "As the Arabs did not have an architectural tradition suited to the needs of a great empire, they adopted the building methods of the defeated Sassanian and Byzantine empires. Because they ruled from Syria, Byzantine influence was stronger, although Sassanian elements became increasingly important."
- ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 7.
- ISBN 9780195309911.
Although Syria remained the center of the Islamic empire for less than 90 years, its role in the development of Islamic architecture was crucial. The region's own ancient civilization, unified and transformed by Hellenization and overlaid with Roman and Christian elements, provided the basis for the new architectural style. The forms and conventions of Classical architecture were better understood in Syria than in the lands further east, and as a result some of the vocabulary of Umayyad architecture—of column and capital, pointed arch and dome, rib and vault—is familiar to a Western observer. These traditions declined in importance, however, as Muslim builders began to adopt the architectural styles of the newly conquered lands to the east—in Mesopotamia, Iran, Central Asia and even India. (...) The Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, founded in 749, ruled most of the Islamic lands from capital cities in Iraq during a golden age that lasted at least until the end of the 9th century. New styles of architecture were characterized by forms, techniques and motifs of Iraqi and Iranian origin. Some features of these styles, such as brick vaults and stucco renderings, had already appeared in buildings erected late in the Umayyad period (661–c. 750; see §III above), but they became increasingly widespread as a result of the power and prestige of the Abbasid court. In the Islamic lands around the Mediterranean, Late Antique traditions of stone construction roofed with wood continued, although new techniques and styles were eventually introduced from Iraq.
- ISBN 9783848003808.
At this stage of scholarly knowledge, however, it is probably fair to say that Islam's Arabian past, essential for understanding the faith and its practices, and the Arabic language and its literature, is not as important for the forms used by Islamic art as the immensely richer world, from the Atlantic Ocean to Central Asia, taken over by Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries. Even later, after centuries of independent growth, new conquests in Anatolia or India continued to bring new local themes and ideas into the mainstream of Islamic art.
- ^ Flood & Necipoğlu 2017, p. 30, Frameworks of Islamic Art and Architectural History: Concepts, Approaches, and Historiographies : "Thus, it is increasingly being recognized that the mutual Roman–Byzantine architectural heritage of the Mediterranean, which had played an important role in the formation of early Islamic art, continued to mediate the shared histories of European and Islamic art long after the medieval period."
- ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, Ch.s "Architecture", "Ornament and pattern".
- ^ "Muslim Iconoclasm". Encyclopedia of the Orient. Archived from the original on 14 March 2007. Retrieved 23 February 2007.
- ^ a b Madden (1975), pp. 423–30
- ^ Tonna, Jo (1990). "The Poetics of Arab-Islamic Architecture", Muqarnas BRILL, 7, pp. 182–97
- ^ Grabar, Oleg (2006), "Islamic art and beyond". Ashgate. Vol 2, p. 87
- OCLC 1001744138.
- ISBN 0-300-06465-9.
- ISBN 978-979-099-631-1
- ^ Julia Kaestle (10 July 2010). "Arabic calligraphy as a typographic exercise".
- OCLC 707023033.
- ^ Blair, Sheila S. (Spring 2003). "The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of an Unwieldy Field". The Art Bulletin. 85: 152–184 – via JSTOR.
- ISBN 0944940005.
- .
- ^ Paul Lunde. "The Beginning of Hijri calendar". Saudi Aramco World Magazine. No. November/December 2005. Archived from the original on 1 January 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2019.
- ISSN 1573-3912.
- ^ Hijri Calendar, Government of Sharjah, archived from the original on 2 February 2017, retrieved 21 January 2017.
- ^ "Important dates in Islamic Calendar in the Year 2023". Al-Habib.info. Archived from the original on 4 January 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
- ^ "Important dates in Islamic Calendar in the Year 2024". Al-Habib.info. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
- ^ ""Calendars" in Encyclopaedia Iranica". Iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
- ^ "دقیق ترین تقویم جهان، هدیه خیام به ایرانیان" [The most accurate calendar in the world, Khayyam's gift to Iranians] (in Persian). BBC Persian. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- ^ "پيمانه کردن سال و ماه از ديرباز تا کنون در گفتگو با دکتر ايرج ملک پور" [Measuring the year and month for a long time until now in a conversation with Dr. Iraj Malekpour] (in Persian). BBC Persian. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- ^ "پژوهشهای ایرانی | پاسداشت گاهشماری ایرانی" [Iranian Studies & # 124; Preservation of the Iranian calendar]. Ghiasabadi.com. 3 November 2005. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- ^ "پژوهشهای ایرانی | گاهشماری تقویم جلالی" [Iranian Studies & # 124; Glory Calendar Timeline]. Ghiasabadi.com. 25 September 2007. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- ^ Shaikh, Fazlur Rehman (2001). Chronology of Prophetic Events. London: Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. pp. 51–52.
- ^ Marom, Roy (Fall 2017). "Approaches to the Research of Early Islam: The Hijrah in Western Historiography". Jamma'a. 23: vii.
- ^ "Taliban Changes Solar Year to Hijri Lunar Calendar". Hasht-e Subh Daily. 26 March 2022. Archived from the original on 4 September 2022. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f Akyol, Riada Asimovic. "On Erdogan and Muslim mothers". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2022. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
Sources
- Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. OCLC 223231547.
- OCLC 1035756076.
- Graham, Mark (2006). How Islam Created the Modern World. Beltsville, Md.: Amana Publications. OCLC 66393160.
- OCLC 40347477.
- Kraemer, Joel L. (1992). Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam. Brill Publishers. OCLC 14203815.
- Madden, Edward H. (1975). "Some Characteristics of Islamic Art". Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 33 (4): 423–430. JSTOR 429655.
- Mason, Robert (1995). "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas. 12: 1–10. JSTOR 1523219.
- Russell, G. A. (1994). The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England. ISBN 978-90-04-09459-8.
- Tausch, Arno (2009). ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1.
- Tausch, Arno (2015). The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world. With Almas Heshmati and Hichem Karoui (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York.
- Turner, Howard R. (1997). Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction (1st ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. OCLC 36438874.
- Livny, Avital (2020). Trust and the Islamic Advantage: Religious-Based Movements in Turkey and the Muslim World. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. OCLC 1192428976.
External links
- What is the Muslim world?, on Aeon
- The Islamic World to 1600 an online tutorial at the University of Calgary, Canada (archived 15 April 2004).
- Is There a Muslim World?, on NPR
- Asabiyya: Re-Interpreting Value Change in Globalized Societies
- Why Europe has to offer a better deal towards its Muslim communities. A quantitative analysis of open international data
- Indian Ocean in World History, A free online educational resource