Mustang
Country of origin | North America |
---|---|
Traits | |
Distinguishing features | Small, compact, good bone, very hardy |
The mustang is a free-roaming horse of the Western United States, descended from horses brought to the Americas by the Spanish. Mustangs are often referred to as wild horses, but because they are descended from once-domesticated animals, they are actually feral horses. The original mustangs were Colonial Spanish horses, but many other breeds and types of horses contributed to the modern mustang, now resulting in varying phenotypes. Some free-roaming horses are relatively unchanged from the original Spanish stock, most strongly represented in the most isolated populations.
In 1971, the
Controversy surrounds the sharing of land and resources by mustangs with the
Etymology and usage
Although free-roaming Mustangs are called "wild" horses, they descend from feral domesticated horses.[a]
According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the English word mustang was likely borrowed from two essentially synonymous Spanish words, mestengo (or mesteño) and mostrenco.[4] English lexicographer John Minsheu glossed both words together as 'strayer' in his dictionary of 1599.[4] Both words referred to livestock defined as 'wild, having no master'.[b] Mostrenco was used since the 13th century, while mestengo is attested from the late 15th.[4]
Mesteño referred originally to beasts of uncertain ownership distributed by the powerful
"Mustangers" (Spanish: mesteñeros) were cowboys (vaqueros) who caught, broke, and drove free-ranging horses to market in the Spanish and later American territories of what is now northern Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, and California. They caught the horses that roamed the Great Plains, the San Joaquin Valley of California, and later the Great Basin, from the 18th century to the early 20th century.[8][9]
Characteristics and ancestry
The original mustangs were
The mustang of the modern west has several different breeding populations today which are genetically isolated from one another and thus have distinct traits traceable to particular herds.[
Many herds were analyzed for Spanish blood group
Horses in several other HMAs exhibit Spanish horse traits, such as
Height varies across the west, however, most are small, generally 14 to 15 hands (56 to 60 inches, 142 to 152 cm), and not taller than 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm), even in herds with draft or Thoroughbred ancestry.[e] Some breeders of domestic horses consider the mustang herds of the west to be inbred and of inferior quality. However, supporters of the mustang argue that the animals are merely small due to their harsh living conditions and that natural selection has eliminated many traits that lead to weakness or inferiority.[citation needed]
The now-defunct American Mustang Association developed a breed standard for those mustangs that carry morphological traits associated with the early Spanish horses. These include a well-proportioned body with a clean, refined head with wide forehead and small muzzle. The facial profile may be straight or slightly convex. Withers are moderate in height, and the shoulder is to be "long and sloping". The standard considers a very short back, deep girth and muscular coupling over the loins as desirable. The croup is rounded, neither too flat nor goose-rumped. The tail is low-set. The legs are to be straight and sound. Hooves are round and dense.[10] Dun color dilution and primitive markings are particularly common among horses of Spanish type.[27]
History
1493–1600
Modern horses were first brought to the Americas with the conquistadors, beginning with Columbus, who imported horses from Spain to the West Indies on his second voyage in 1493.[29] Horses came to the mainland with the arrival of Cortés in 1519.[30] By 1525, Cortés had imported enough horses to create a nucleus of horse-breeding in Mexico.[31]
One hypothesis held that horse populations north of Mexico originated in the mid-1500s with the expeditions of Narváez, de Soto or Coronado, but it has been refuted.[32][33] Horse breeding in sufficient numbers to establish a self-sustaining population developed in what today is the southwestern United States starting in 1598 when Juan de Oñate founded Santa Fe de Nuevo México. From 75 horses in his original expedition, he expanded his herd to 800, and from there the horse population increased rapidly.[33]
While the Spanish also brought horses to Florida in the 16th century,
17th- and 18th-century dispersal
Native American people readily integrated use of the horse into their cultures. They quickly adopted the horse as a primary means of transportation. Horses replaced the dog as a pack animal and changed Native cultures in terms of warfare, trade, and even diet—the ability to run down bison allowed some people to abandon agriculture for hunting from horseback.[36]
Santa Fe became a major trading center in the 1600s.[37] Although Spanish laws prohibited Native Americans from riding horses, the Spanish used Native people as servants, and some were tasked to care for livestock, thus learning horse-handling skills.[35] Oñate's colonists also lost many of their horses.[38] Some wandered off because the Spanish generally did not keep them in fenced enclosures,[39] and Native people in the area captured some of these estrays.[40] Other horses were traded by Oñate' settlers for women, or food and other goods.[33] Initially, horses obtained by Native people were simply eaten, along with any cattle that were captured or stolen.[41] But as individuals with horse-handling skills fled Spanish control, sometimes with a few trained horses, the local tribes began using horses for riding and as pack animals. By 1659, settlements reported being raided for horses, and in the 1660s the "Apache"[f] were trading human captives for horses.[42] The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 also resulted in large numbers of horses coming into the hands of Native people, the largest one-time influx in history.[40]
From the
In this period, Spanish missions were also a source of stray and stolen livestock, particularly in what today is Texas and California.[48] The Spanish brought horses to California for use at their missions and ranches, where permanent settlements were established in 1769.[47] Horse numbers grew rapidly, with a population of 24,000 horses reported by 1800.[49] By 1805, there were so many horses in California that people began to simply kill unwanted animals to reduce overpopulation.[50] However, due to the barriers presented by mountain ranges and deserts, the California population did not significantly influence horse numbers elsewhere at the time.[47][i] Horses in California were described as being of "exceptional quality".[50]
In the upper
Although horses were brought from Mexico to Texas as early as 1542, a stable population did not exist until 1686, when Alonso de León's expedition arrived with 700 horses. From there, later groups brought up thousands more, deliberately leaving some horses and cattle to fend for themselves at various locations, while others strayed.[53] By 1787, these animals had multiplied to the point that a roundup gathered nearly 8,000 "free-roaming mustangs and cattle".[54] West-central Texas, between the Rio Grande and Palo Duro Canyon, was said to have the most concentrated population of feral horses in the Americas.[46] Throughout the west, horses escaped human control and formed feral herds, and by the late 1700s, the largest numbers were found in what today are the states of Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico.[46]
19th century
An early 19th-century reference to mustangs by American sources came from
Estimates of when the peak population of mustangs occurred and total numbers vary widely between sources. No comprehensive census of feral horse numbers was ever performed until the time of the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 and any earlier estimates, particularly prior to the 20th century, are speculative.[56] Some sources simply state that "millions" of mustangs once roamed western North America.[57][58] In 1959, geographer Tom L. McKnight[k] suggested that the population peaked in the late 1700s or early 1800s, and the "best guesses apparently lie between two and five million".[46] Historian J. Frank Dobie hypothesized that the population peaked around the end of the Mexican–American War in 1848, stating: "My own guess is that at no time were there more than a million mustangs in Texas and no more than a million others scattered over the remainder of the West."[60] J. Edward de Steiguer[l] questioned Dobie's lower guess as still being too high.[62]
In 1839, the numbers of mustangs in Texas had been augmented by animals abandoned by Mexican settlers who had been ordered to leave the
Farther west, the first known sighting of a free-roaming horse in the Great Basin was by
20th century
In the early 1900s, thousands of free-roaming horses were rounded up for use in the Spanish–American War[74] and World War I.[75]
By 1920, Bob Brislawn, who worked as a packer for the U.S. government, recognized that the original mustangs were disappearing, and made efforts to preserve them, ultimately establishing the Spanish Mustang Registry.[76] In 1934, J. Frank Dobie stated that there were just "a few wild [feral] horses in Nevada, Wyoming and other Western states" and that "only a trace of Spanish blood is left in most of them"[77] remaining. Other sources agree that by that time, only "pockets" of mustangs that retained Colonial Spanish Horse type remained.[78]
By 1930, the vast majority of free-roaming horses were found west of Continental Divide, with an estimated population between 50,000 and 150,000.
By the 1950s, the mustang population dropped to an estimated 25,000 horses.[82] Abuses linked to certain capture methods, including hunting from airplanes and poisoning water holes, led to the first federal free-roaming horse protection law in 1959.[83] This statute, titled "Use of aircraft or motor vehicles to hunt certain wild horses or burros; pollution of watering holes"[84] popularly known as the "Wild Horse Annie Act", prohibited the use of motor vehicles for capturing free-roaming horses and burros.[85] Protection was increased further by the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 (WFRHABA).[86]
The Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 provided for protection of certain previously established herds of horses and burros. It mandated the BLM to oversee the protection and management of free-roaming herds on lands it administered, and gave U.S. Forest Service similar authority on National Forest lands.[56] A few free-ranging horses are also managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service[87] and the National Park Service,[88] but for the most part they are not subject to management under the Act.[89] A census completed in conjunction with passage of the Act found that there were approximately 17,300 horses (25,300 combined population of horses and burros) on the BLM-administered lands and 2,039 on National Forests.[90]
21st century
The BLM has established
More than half of all free-roaming mustangs in North America are found in
Land use controversies
Prehistoric context
The horse,
Modern issues
Due in part to the prehistory of the horse, there is controversy as to the role mustangs have in the ecosystem as well as their rank in the prioritized use of public lands, particularly in relation to livestock. There are multiple viewpoints. Some supporters of mustangs on public lands assert that, while not native, mustangs are a "culturally significant" part of the
Mustang supporters advocate for the BLM to rank mustangs higher in priority than it currently does, arguing that too little forage is allocated to mustangs relative to cattle and sheep.[111] Ranchers and others affiliated with the livestock industry favor a lower priority, arguing essentially that their livelihoods and rural economies are threatened because they depend upon the public land forage for their livestock.[112]
The debate as to what degree mustangs and cattle compete for forage is multifaceted. Horses are adapted by
However, while the BLM rates horses by animal unit (AUM) to eat the same amount of forage as a cow–calf pair (the baseline of 1.0 for the pair), studies of horse grazing patterns indicate that horses probably consume forage at a rate closer to 1.5 AUM.[117] Modern rangeland management also recommends removing all livestock[p] during the growing season to maximize re-growth of the forage. Year-round grazing by any non-native ungulate will degrade it,[118] particularly horses whose incisors allow them to graze plants very close to the ground, inhibiting recovery.[109]
Management and adoption
The
There are few predators in the modern era capable of preying on healthy adult mustangs,[121] and for the most part, predators capable of limiting the growth of feral mustang herd sizes are not found in the same habitat as most modern feral herds.[122] Although wolves and mountain lions are two species known to prey on horses and in theory could control population growth,[122] in practice, predation is not a viable population control mechanism. Wolves were historically rare in, and currently do not inhabit, the Great Basin,[123] where the vast majority of mustangs roam. While they are documented to prey on feral horses in Alberta, Canada, there is no known documentation of wolf predation on free-roaming horses in the United States.[122] Mountain lions have been documented to prey on feral horses in the U.S., but in limited areas and small numbers,[121] and mostly foals.[122]
One of the BLM's key mandates under the 1971 law and amendments is to maintain Appropriate Management Levels (AML) of wild horses and burros in areas of public rangelands where they are managed by the federal government.[124] Control of the population to within AML is achieved through a capture program, although there are no specific guidelines or techniques used to round up mustangs. Most methods are quite stressful for the animals, even fatal. [1] The BLM allows the use of trucks, ATVs, helicopters, and firearms to chase the horses into holding pens or "traps". These methods have often resulted in extreme exhaustion, serious injuries, or even death to the horses. "Bait" traps are another common way mustangs are corralled, usually with hay or water being left in a camouflaged pen while varying types of trigger systems close gates behind the horses. Another, less destructive method uses a tamed horse, called a "Judas horse", which has been trained to lead wild horses into a pen or corral. Once the mustangs are herded into an area near the holding pen, the Judas horse is released. Its job is then to move to the head of the herd and lead them into a confined area.[125]
Since 1978, captured horses have been offered for adoption to individuals or groups willing and able to provide humane, long-term care. For decades this was after payment of a base adoption fee of $125, but in March 2019, in face of the mustang
Despite efforts to try to increase the number of horses adopted, such as the Extreme Mustang Makeover, a promotional competition that gives trainers 100 days to gentle and train 100 mustangs so they may be adopted through auction,
Captured horses are freeze branded on the left side of the neck by the BLM, using the International Alpha Angle System, a system of angles and alpha-symbols that cannot be altered. The brands begin with a symbol indicating the registering organization, in this case the U.S. government, then two stacked figures indicating the individual horse's year of birth, then the individual registration number. Captured horses kept in sanctuaries are also marked on the left hip with four inch-high Arabic numerals that are also the last four digits of the freeze brand on the neck.[132]
See also
Notes
- ^ Another source defines mostrenco as 'wild, stray, ownerless'.[5]
- ^ Examples include the Herd Management Areas in California and Idaho.[13][14]
- ^ See, e.g., High Rock[22] and Carter Reservoir HMAs, California;[23] Twin Peaks HMA, California/Nevada;[24] and Black Mountain HMA, Idaho.[25]
- ^ Some horses in the Pryor range are said to be under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm),[27] Horses estimated at up to 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) are found at HMAs such as Devils Garden Wild Horse Territory, California,[28] and Challis HMA, Idaho.[26]
- ^ Apache was a Pueblo word meaning 'enemy', and some early accounts referred to all hostile tribes generically as "Apaches" regardless of which tribe was involved.[41]
- ^ Horses did not arrive in the Great Basin until the 1850s.[44]
- ^ The Western Shoshone occupied the interior of the Great Basin, and did not have access to horses until after 1850.[44]
- ^ It was there and the southern Great Plains where Dobie stated the "Spanish horses found vast American ranges corresponding in climate and soil to the arid lands of Spain, northern Africa and Arabia in which they originated".[51]
- ^ The OED cites Sources Mississ. III 273 for Pike; and "Journal, 5 Sept." in Texas State Historical Association Quarterly (1904) VII. 300, for Austin.[55]
- ^ Tom L. McKnight c. 1929–2004, PhD Wisconsin 1955, professor of geography, UCLA.[59]
- ^ "Ed" de Steiguer PhD, professor at the University of Arizona.[61]
- ^ The area was also known as the "Wild Horse Desert"[65] or "Mustang Desert".[60]
- ^ A few hundred free-roaming horses survive in Alberta and British Columbia
- ^ "Livestock" in this context includes sheep, cattle, and horses.[118]
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{{cite report}}
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ignored (help) - ^ "The "Final Solution" for Wild Horses?". KBR Horse Page. Knightsen, California / Stagecoach, Nevada: Kickin' Back Ranch. 2004. Archived from the original on March 17, 2016. Retrieved March 4, 2018.
- ^ Masters. "Mustangs in Crisis". Western Horseman. Morris Communications. Archived from the original on March 8, 2018.
- ^ "The Extreme Mustang Makeover". Archived from the original on September 1, 2009.
- ^ Masters. "Mustangs in Crisis". Archived from the original on March 9, 2018.
- ^ "Freezemarks". BLM.gov. U.S. Bureau of Land Management. August 29, 2012. Archived from the original on February 14, 2015. Retrieved May 21, 2015.
Sources
- Bennett, Deb (1998). Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship (1st ed.). Solvang, California: Amigo Publications. ISBN 978-0-9658533-0-9.
- Budiansky, Stephen (1997). The Nature of Horses: Exploring Equine Evolution, Intelligence, and Behavior. New York: ISBN 9780684827681.
- de Steiguer, J. Edward (2011). Wild Horses of the West: History and Politics of America's Mustangs. Tucson: ISBN 9780816528264.
- ISBN 9780803266506.
- Haines, Francis (July 1938). "The Northward Spread of Horses Among the Plains Indians" (PDF). . Retrieved June 13, 2015.
- Haines, Francis (January 1938). "Where Did the Plains Indians Get Their Horses?". American Anthropologist. 40 (1): 112–117. . Retrieved May 19, 2015.
- McKnight, Tom L. (October 1959). "The Feral Horse in Anglo-America". JSTOR 212210.
- Masters, Ben (August 9, 2017). "Mustangs in Crisis". Western Horseman. Archived from the original on May 8, 2018. Retrieved March 8, 2018.
- Committee to Review the Bureau of Land Management Wild Horse and Burro Management Program (2013). Using Science to Improve the BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program: A Way Forward. Washington DC: Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Division on Earth and Life Studies, National Research Council, National Academies Press. ISBN 9780309264976.
- Sherrets, Harold (1984). "The Taylor Grazing Act, 1934-1984, 50 Years of Progress, Impacts of Wild Horses on Rangeland Management". Boise: Bureau of Land Management, Idaho State Office.
- Wyman, Walker D. (1966) [1945]. The Wild Horse of the West. Lincoln: ISBN 978-0803252233.
Further reading
- Roe, Frank Gilbert (1974) [1955]. The Indian and the Horse. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
- Luís, Cristina; Bastos-Silveira, Cristiane; Cothran, E. Gus; Oom, Maria do Mar (December 21, 2005). "Iberian Origins Of New World Horse Breeds". Journal of Heredity. 97 (2): 107–113. PMID 16489143.
- Morin, Paula (2006) Honest Horses: Wild Horses of the Great Basin. Reno: University of Nevada Press
- Nimmo, D. G.; Miller, K. K. (2007) Ecological and human dimensions of management of feral horses in Australia: A review. Wildlife Research, 34, 408–417
- Text of Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act of 1971