Mutual Broadcasting System
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The Mutual Broadcasting System (commonly referred to simply as Mutual; sometimes referred to as MBS, Mutual Radio or the Mutual Radio Network) was an American commercial radio network in operation from 1934 to 1999. In the golden age of U.S. radio drama, Mutual was best known as the original network home of The Lone Ranger and The Adventures of Superman and as the long-time radio residence of The Shadow. For many years, it was a national broadcaster for Major League Baseball (including the All-Star Game and World Series), the National Football League, and Notre Dame Fighting Irish football. From the mid-1930s and until the retirement of the network in 1999, Mutual ran a highly respected news service accompanied by a variety of popular commentary shows. In the late 1970s, Mutual pioneered the nationwide late night call-in talk radio program, introducing the country to Larry King and later, Jim Bohannon.
In the 1970s, acting in much the same style as rival ABC Radio[a] had splitting their network in 1968, Mutual launched four sister radio networks: Mutual Black Network (MBN) (initially launched as "Mutual Reports"[1]), which evolved to today's American Urban Radio Networks (AURN); Mutual Cadena Hispánica (or in English, "Mutual Spanish Network"); Mutual Southwest Network; and Mutual Progressive Network (later re-branded "Mutual Lifestyle Radio" in 1980, then retired in 1983).
Of the four national networks of American radio's classic era, Mutual had for decades the largest number of
Once General Tire sold the network in 1957 to a syndicate led by Dr. Armand Hammer, Mutual's ownership was largely disconnected from the stations it served, leading to a more conventional, top-down model of program production and distribution. Due to the multiple sales of the network that followed, Mutual was once described in Broadcasting magazine as "often traded".[3] After a group that involved Hal Roach Studios purchased Mutual from Hammer's group, the new executive team was charged with accepting money to use Mutual as a vehicle for foreign propaganda while the network suffered significant financial losses and affiliate defections.[4] Concurrently filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy and sold twice in the span of four months for purposes of raising enough money to remain operational, the network's reputation was severely damaged but soon rebounded under succeeding owner 3M Company. Sold to private interests in 1966 and again to Amway in 1977, Mutual purchased two radio stations in New York and Chicago entering the 1980s, only to sell them after Amway's interest in broadcasting began to fade. Radio syndicator Westwood One acquired Mutual in 1985 and NBC Radio in 1987, merging the two networks together; throughout the 1990s, Mutual was gradually assimilated into Westwood One's operations and the Mutual name was finally retired in 1999.
History
1934–1935: The launch of Mutual
Attempts at establishing cooperatively owned radio networks had been made since the 1920s. In 1929, a group of four radio stations in the major markets of New York City, Chicago, Cincinnati, and Detroit organized into a loose confederation known as the Quality Network. Five years later (in 1934), a similar or identical group of stations founded the Mutual Broadcasting System.[c] Mutual's original participating stations were WOR–Newark, New Jersey, just outside New York (owned by the Bamberger Broadcasting Service, a division of R.H. Macy and Company; in 1949, WOR-TV would begin broadcasting and Bamberger would be renamed General Teleradio, due to General Tire & Rubber's increased investment in the TV station[5]), WGN–Chicago (owned by WGN Inc., a subsidiary of the Chicago Tribune), WXYZ–Detroit (owned by Kunsky-Trendle Broadcasting), and WLW–Cincinnati (owned by the Crosley Radio Company). The network was organized on September 29, 1934, with the members contracting for telephone-line transmission facilities and agreeing to collectively enter into contracts with advertisers for their networked shows. WOR and WGN, based in the two largest markets and providing the bulk of the programming, were the acknowledged leaders of the group. On October 29, 1934, Mutual Broadcasting System, Inc. was incorporated, with Bamberger and WGN Inc. each holding 50 percent of the stock—five each of the ten total shares.[6][7][8]
The three national radio networks already in operation—the
On May 24, 1935, the network aired its inaugural live event—the first-ever night baseball game, between the Cincinnati Reds and the Philadelphia Phillies.[17] In September, WXYZ dropped out to join NBC Blue, though contractual obligations kept The Lone Ranger on Mutual, airing three times a week, through spring 1942.[18] The hole in the Detroit market was immediately filled by CKLW in Windsor, Ontario, just across the river.[19] In October, the network began a decades-long run as broadcaster of baseball's World Series, with airtime responsibilities shared between WGN's Bob Elson and Quin Ryan and WLW's Red Barber (NBC and CBS also carried the series that year; the Fall Classic would air on all three networks through 1938).[20][21] Mutual broadcast its first Notre Dame football game that autumn as well, beginning another relationship that would last for decades.[22] As an income-generating business, the Mutual network was a modest endeavor at the start: in the first eleven months of 1935, the cooperative garnered $1.1 million in advertising, compared to NBC's $28.3 million and CBS's $15.8 million.[19]
Late 1930s: National expansion
In the fall of 1936, Mutual lost another of its founding members when WLW departed. The network, however, was in the midst of a major expansion: the first outside group of stations to sign on with Mutual was
In January 1937, ownership of WAAB was consolidated with that of another Boston station controlled by Shepard:
Programming: The Shadow and diverse political voices
On the programming front, 1936 saw Mutual launch the first network advice show, The Good Will Hour, hosted by John J. Anthony and sponsored by physical culture guru Bernarr Macfadden. The program was a new take on Ask Mister Anthony, which had aired on a local New York station in 1932, "dedicated to helping the sufferers from an antiquated and outmoded domestic relations code." Anthony, whose real name was Lester Kroll, brought a wealth of relevant experience to his work—he had once been jailed for failing to make alimony payments.[34][35] In July 1937 came the premiere of a seven-part adaptation of Les Misérables, produced, written, and directed by Orson Welles and featuring many of his Mercury Theatre performers—Mercury's first appearance on the air. September 26, 1937, proved a particularly momentous date: that evening, The Shadow came to Mutual.[d] The show would become a mainstay of the network for more than a decade and a half and one of the most popular programs in radio history. For the first year of its Mutual run, Welles provided the voice of The Shadow and his newly created alter ego, Lamont Cranston. He played the part anonymously at first. But, as one chronicler put it, "nothing to do with Welles could remain a secret for very long."[39]
In April 1938, the network picked up The Green Hornet from former member WXYZ. Mutual gave the twice-a-week series its first national exposure until November 1939, when it switched to NBC Blue. (The series would return very briefly to Mutual in the fall of 1940).[40] Mutual also provided the national launching pad for Kay Kyser and his Kollege of Musical Knowledge radio show. Kyser's enormous success at Mutual soon allowed his show to move to NBC and its much larger audience.[41] By May 1939, Mutual was broadcasting the Indianapolis 500.[42][e] That autumn, Mutual won exclusive broadcast rights to the World Series. As described in a 1943 Supreme Court ruling upholding the regulatory power of the Federal Communications Commission, Mutual "offered this program of outstanding national interest to stations throughout the country, including NBC and CBS affiliates in communities having no other stations. CBS and NBC immediately invoked the 'exclusive affiliation' clauses of their agreements with these stations, and as a result thousands of persons in many sections of the country were unable to hear the broadcasts of the games." This was the first example given in the ruling of "abuses" perpetrated by the two leading broadcast companies.[32]
Mutual also began building a reputation as a strong news service, rivaling the industry leaders in quality if not budget. The broadcasts of WOR reporter
1940s: One of the "Big Four"
Early in 1940, the corporate organization of Mutual became even more inclusive, as described by scholar Cornelia B. Rose:
Until January, 1940, six groups bore the expense of the network operation in varying degree: stations WGN and WOR owned all the stock of the corporation and guaranteed to make up any deficit; the Colonial Network in New England, the Don Lee System on the Pacific Coast, and the group of stations owned by the Cleveland Plain Dealer, participated in responsibility for running expenses. A new contract effective February 1, 1940, provides for contributing membership by all the above group[s] plus station CKLW in Detroit-Windsor. These groups now agree to underwrite expenses and become stockholders in the network.... An operating board for the network is comprised of representatives from each of these groups, together with additional representation appointed by other affiliated stations.[49]
The new cooperative structure was also joined by the owners of WKRC in Cincinnati, which had replaced Mutual cofounder WLW in that market. The Mutual corporation now had 100 shares, apportioned as follows:[51]
Shareholder | Lead station | Shares |
---|---|---|
Bamberger Broadcasting | WOR | 25 |
WGN Inc. | WGN | 25 |
Don Lee Network | KHJ | 25 |
Colonial Network | WAAB | 6 |
United Broadcasting | WHK | 6 |
Western Ontario Broadcasting | CKLW | 6 |
The Cincinnati Times-Star | WKRC | 6 |
Fred Weber | Mutual general manager | 1 |
Total | 100 |
In 1941, WOR's official city of license was changed to New York. Within two years, the Colonial Network's affiliate roster and shares in Mutual had been fully absorbed into the Yankee Network by John Shepard III; WNAC was the sole flagship, WAAB having been moved to Worcester, in central Massachusetts, to avoid duopoly restrictions. With WBZ taking over the slot as the NBC Red affiliate in Boston, WNAC switched to Mutual. In January 1943, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved the sale of the Yankee Network—with WNAC, its three other owned-and-operated stations, its contracts with 17 additional affiliates, and its Mutual shares—to the Ohio-based General Tire and Rubber Company.[29][52][53]
By 1940, Mutual was already on a par with the industry leaders in terms of affiliate roster size.[f] Still, because Mutual affiliates were mostly in small markets or lesser stations in large ones, the network lagged way behind in advertising revenue—NBC took in eleven times as much as Mutual that year.[55][g] In 1941, the FCC, calling for NBC to divest one of its two networks, observed that the company "has utilized the Blue to forestall competition with the Red .... Mutual is excluded from, or only lamely admitted to, many important markets."[57][58] On January 10, 1942, Mutual filed a $10.275 million suit against NBC and its parent company, RCA, alleging a conspiracy "hindering and restricting Mutual freely and fairly to compete in the transmission in interstate commerce of nationwide network programs."[59] The FCC's Supreme Court victory in 1943 led to the sale of the Blue Network and Mutual dropping its lawsuit.[60]
These developments appear to have been of more symbolic than practical value to Mutual—the transfer of the NBC Blue stations to the new American Broadcasting Company did little to help Mutual's competitive position. In 1945 it reached 384 affiliates, and by December 1948, Mutual Broadcasting was heard on more than 500 stations in the United States.[54][61] But this growth did not reflect any ability on Mutual's part to attract leading stations from the corporate-controlled networks. Rather, the FCC had eased its technical standards for local stations, facilitating the establishment of new outlets in small markets: between 1945 and 1952, the number of AM stations rose from around 940 to more than 2,350.[62] It was these new, relatively weak stations Mutual kept picking up. Though by now it had many more affiliates than any other U.S. radio network, for the most part they remained "less desirable in frequency, power, and coverage," as the Supreme Court had put it.[32] For instance, in the postwar era CBS and NBC covered all of North Carolina each with only four stations. Mutual needed fourteen affiliates to deliver comparable statewide coverage.[12]
Mutual's involvement in television
Late in the decade, there was a brief exploration into the idea of launching a Mutual television network, serious enough to prompt talks with
The cooperative also held the rights to a number of valuable radio properties that made the transition to the new medium, including two of the era's most popular variations on what would later become known as the tabloid talk show and "reality" programming: the crabby gabfest Leave It to the Girls and, in particular, Queen for a Day, which both started on Mutual radio in 1945. Referred to by some as a "misery show," Queen for a Day "awarded prizes to women who could come up with the most heart-stabbing stories told by the sick and the downtrodden .... On one show, a mother of nine requested a washing machine to replace one that broke when it fell on her husband and disabled him—and who, by the way, also needed heart surgery."[65] In May 1947, a simulcast version began airing on the Don Lee system's experimental TV station in Los Angeles, W6XAO (later KTSL). It was a smash hit, and by the turn of the decade TV stations all along the coast were broadcasting it to high ratings.[66][h] In the 1950s, Mutual would stare down NBC for four years as the mighty network sought to take control of the show.
Programming: World War II and Superman
Offscreen, Mutual remained an enterprising broadcaster. In 1940, a program featuring Cedric Foster joined Mutual's respected schedule of news and opinion shows. Foster's claim to fame was as the first daytime commentator to be heard nationally on a daily basis.
In the field of entertainment, Mutual built on the incomparable success of The Shadow. WGN's
In February 1946, Mutual introduced a quiz show,
1950s: New ownership
General Tire asserts control, then sells
Toward the end of 1950, the executors of the estate of Thomas S. Lee (the son of Don Lee, who had died in 1934) liquidated the estate's broadcasting interests. The Don Lee Broadcasting System and its shares in Mutual was sold to General Tire for $12.3 million (equivalent to $156 million in 2023), which already had a sizable stake in Mutual via the Yankee Network.[82][83][i] The sale prompted a challenge by Edwin W. Pauley, who led a failed bid for the group, claiming it violated Mutual bylaws stating no group could hold more than 25 percent of network stock.[85][86] General Tire retained KHJ, KFRC and KGB, divesting the other stations.[83] At the same time, Mutual acquired the television broadcast rights to the World Series and All-Star Game for the next six years. Mutual was likely re-indulging in TV network dreams or was simply taking advantage of a long-standing business relationship; in either case, Mutual sold the broadcast rights to NBC in time for the following season's games at an enormous profit.[87][j]
Early in 1952, General Tire purchased General Teleradio from R.H. Macy and Company. With the deal, General Tire acquired the WOR radio and TV stations and the rights to the General Teleradio brand, under which the company merged its broadcasting interests as a new division (Bamberger had previously sold its TV station in the nation's capital, WOIC, to CBS and the
While Mutual did not have a television network,[k] it held rights to one of the most profitable shows in the medium: an early adaptation of Queen for a Day on General Teleradio/Don Lee's KHJ-TV boasted an audience triple that of the city's six other television stations combined.[67] It was also the largest U.S. radio network in affiliate numbers, by far—it had around 560, almost three times as many as its most powerful competitors, CBS (194) and NBC (191).[91][l] Still, the radio industry started to feel effects of major advertisers abandoning radio for television, with commercial rates being cut among all four networks, Mutual included.[93] O'Neil proposed a barter-style restructuring at a July 1953 affiliates' conference in Cape Cod, Massachusetts, called "The Cape Cod Plan": the network would provide five hours of sponsored programming daily and 14 hours of additional programming weekly that affiliates could sell commercial time for.[94] The "Cape Cod Plan" eventually met with resistance from the affiliates, some of which saw it as an attempt by Mutual to make money at their expense; by the time of the next affiliates' conference in January 1954, O'Neil called the barter plan "dead".[95]
In 1955, General Tire expanded its media holdings by acquiring
By this point, Mutual was foundering. Even with the "Mutual Dealer Plan" and staff cutbacks, the network suffered a loss of $400,000 (equivalent to $4.34 million in 2023) in 1956.[93] In early July 1957, advertisers were notified the network could end operations at the end of the month, one of three options General Tire was considering for Mutual.[93] Another option—spinning off Mutual while retaining the stations that had given it control—was ultimately taken, as a group led by Dr. Armand Hammer bought the network later in the month.[103] Limited sponsorship packages were also introduced in which an advertiser could back a show for an abbreviated period rather than an entire season, but there was no reversing the trend of television usurping radio.[104] The radio networks were left with the bills for an increasing number of sustaining programs, which had no sponsors.[105] The loss of mainstay advertisers was accompanied by what historian Ronald Garay describes as the "mass desertion of network radio talent, management and technicians for television .... [T]hese people were taking with them the programming that had popularized the radio networks."[106]
Turmoil, propaganda allegations, and bankruptcy
The network soon changed hands again: in September 1958, it was acquired by the Scranton Corporation for $2 million (equivalent to $21.1 million in 2023).
Scranton was under pressure to sell Mutual. The March 9, 1959, issue of Broadcasting magazine stated Mutual had a deficit of $1.05 million (equivalent to $11 million in 2023) and was losing up to $100,000 a month. AT&T threatened to cut off Mutual's telephone service within 24 hours if all outstanding charges were not paid, which would sever the network from its affiliates.[109] An attempt to sell the network to Max Factor collapsed after the cosmetics manufacturer could not find a way to create a tax advantage from the existing financial losses.[112][109] When AT&T made another threat to disconnect phone service, network news director Robert F. Hurleigh engineered a last-minute deal with businessman Malcolm Smith, whose transaction to buy the network included $1 million of advertising time and payment of the outstanding AT&T phone bill, which totaled over $400,000.[113] The deal, however, failed to stop KALL in Salt Lake City and its 41-station regional "Intermountain Network" from switching to ABC.[114] The Don Lee Network folded on April 26, with all 20 affiliates switching from Mutual to ABC and ABC purchasing Don Lee's remaining programming.[115] Yankee Network lead station WNAC severed ties with Mutual in August to become independent, but Mutual was allowed to affiliate with the other Yankee stations individually.[116]
Mutual apparently refuses to believe that we have disaffiliated. We are sympathetic to their problem, but we have definitely affiliated with ABC Radio.
Lynn Meyer, president of the Intermountain Network/KALL, on their March 1959 disaffiliation from Mutual[114]
The troubles with Mutual worsened. While on a
In the wake of the Trujillo scandal and affiliate defections, Smith sold Mutual to Hurleigh for $1 on July 1, 1959, which was followed by a voluntary Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing. Businessman Albert G. McCarthy took over operations, arranging to settle the network's over $3 million in debts (equivalent to $31.4 million in 2023) while seeking an owner interested in running it on an ongoing basis.[121] WOR signed a new contract with Mutual despite previously indicating the station would drop the network,[122] becoming the lone RKO Teleradio station to renew ties as WGMS, KFRC, KHJ and WHBQ joined WNAC in independence.[116] At the same time, WOR started to identify as "WOR-AM-FM, owned by RKO General," eschewing on-air mentions of Mutual after listeners mistakenly thought WOR was also in bankruptcy; concurrently, Mutual changed their station cue to "the Network of Independent Stations".[123] A three-part reorganization plan resolving all debts was approved in bankruptcy court on December 23, 1959, allowing Mutual to emerge from Chapter 11; a network spokesperson commented, "this means we start out with a clean slate; we are now divorced from any previous managements."[124]
The Korean War and original drama's decline
Before the Guterma fiasco, the network had maintained its reputation for running a strong and respected news organization. As the conflict on the Korean peninsula began to escalate in mid-1950, Mutual began airing two special nightly reports on the situation, featuring the commentary of Major George Fielding Eliot, military analyst for CBS during World War II. By August 1950, Mutual was represented by six correspondents in Korea, more than NBC or ABC.[125] On occasion, Mutual's commentary programs made the news: On March 11, 1954, Fulton Lewis Jr. featured Senator Joseph McCarthy as his guest, two days after the senator's ethics had been called into question on the CBS TV show See It Now, hosted by Edward R. Murrow. In his radio interview, McCarthy dismissed Murrow as "the extreme left-wing, bleeding-heart element of television."[126] In 1957, Mutual refused to air an episode of Clarence Manion's Manion Forum featuring Herbert V. Kohler Sr. due to controversy over the Kohler strikes.[127]
Mutual began the 1950s by entering the realm of adult science fiction with 2000 Plus on March 15, 1950, almost a month before NBC premiered the similarly themed Dimension X.[128] The network picked up adventure series Challenge of the Yukon from ABC Radio, which originated at Mutual cofounder WXYZ in 1938 (but after the station left the network). Renamed Sergeant Preston of the Yukon, this show launched on Mutual on July 10, 1951.[129] A partnership with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer at the end of 1951 had the film studio supply up to six hours of programming per week starting in 1952 with The MGM Theater of the Air as its centerpiece,[130] but the programs lasted for only one year.[131] Another established drama, Phillips H. Lord's Counterspy, moved to Mutual in 1953 after a prior run on ABC.[132] The network's other new offerings in 1953 were a further sign of the times—transcription reruns of Coke Time with Eddie Fisher (utilizing soundtracks from Fisher's NBC-TV show) and an audio simulcast of CBS-TV's Perry Como Chesterfield Show.[94] The Shadow's long run finally ended in December 1954,[133] followed by Sergeant Preston in June 1955.[129] Gang Busters, another Lord serial which had runs on ABC, CBS and NBC throughout the 1940s and early 1950s, moved to Mutual in October 1955.[134] In November 1957, the final episodes of Counterspy and Gang Busters aired, ending the network's last two remaining half-hour original dramatic shows.[135] Mutual had forsworn the genre and would not broadcast a new dramatic series until 1973 with the short-lived Rod Serling vehicle The Zero Hour.[m]
In 1955, the famous comedy team Bob and Ray came over from NBC for a five-day-a-week afternoon show.[137] Kate Smith returned in January 1958 for her final radio series, which ran until August.[80] In June 1958, just a few months before the Scranton takeover, the network had launched a nightly 25-minute newscast, The World Today, hosted by Westbrook Van Voorhis, famous as the voice of The March of Time. Sports began to occupy an increasing portion of Mutual's schedule: the network began regularly airing a Major League Baseball Game of the Day, every day except Sunday. This expansion into daily sports programming would run well into the 1960s.[n] While baseball's World Series and All-Star Game would go to rival NBC in 1957, Mutual secured national radio rights to Notre Dame Fighting Irish football in 1954.[141][99] The rights would switch between networks over the following decade before Mutual became the exclusive broadcaster in 1968,[142] which would remain a cornerstone for the rest of the network's existence.[143][144]
1960s–1970s: Narrowed focus
From 3M to Amway
In the spring of 1960, the
In July 1966, 3M sold the network to the privately held Mutual Industries, Inc., headed by John P. Fraim and Loren M. Berry, for $3.1 million (equivalent to $29.1 million in 2023); Fraim was vice-president of Berry's Dayton, Ohio–based telephone directory publishing company.[3][148] Upon Mutual Industries's acquisition of Mutual, it was renamed to "Mutual Broadcasting Corporation".[149] The following month, after the death of Mutual stalwart Fulton Lewis Jr., his son Fulton Lewis III took over his nightly 7 p.m. slot.[150] Another Ohio businessman, Daniel H. Overmyer, sought a merger with Mutual in 1967 amid plans to start his own TV network. The offer was rebuffed, but three Mutual stockholders joined eleven other investors to buy Overmyer's hookup and rename it the United Network.[151] The network and its only offering, The Las Vegas Show, folded after only a month on the air.[152]
When ABC Radio[a] "split" into four demographically targeted networks on January 1, 1968, Mutual unsuccessfully sued to block the move. Meanwhile, the network was undergoing some management instability, with frequent changes at the top: for example, Matthew J. Culligan was Mutual's president from October 1966 to June 1968. He was replaced by Robert R. Pauley, who came over from the ABC radio division, where he had served as president for nearly seven years.[153] But Pauley only lasted a year, and resigned after clashes with the board over the need for cost-cutting, and other decisions with which he disagreed. His replacement was Victor C. Diehm, owner of several Mutual-affiliated radio stations and active on the Mutual Affiliates Advisory Council.[154]
Diehm was succeeded early in 1972 by C. Edward Little, a former executive and owner of Hollywood, Florida, Mutual affiliate WGMA. Little arrived in the position with a commitment to expand Mutual's news service and program offerings, conceding that Mutual had long been fourth among the legacy "big four" radio networks.[155] Taking a page from ABC's move to split its radio network years earlier, Little launched two additional news services, the Mutual Black Network (MBN) and the Mutual Spanish Network (MSN; Mutual Cadena Hispánica, or MCH) on May 1, 1972.[156] Targeting Black audiences, MBN supplied 100 five-minute-long news and sports reports weekly along with other programming,[157] with MCH featuring similar fare aimed at Spanish-language listeners.[156] By July 1972, Mutual had 550 affiliates, MBN had 55 and MCH had 21.[111] While MCH lasted only six months, by 1974 MBN grew to 98 affiliates.[158]
Another change in July 1974 was more subtle—Mutual began using the distinctive two-toned "Mutualert" network cue tones at the beginning and end of newscasts and programs, between commercials and during network identification breaks.[159] Referred to as "bee-doops", these cue tones would be used by Mutual for the rest of its existence.[160] The youth-oriented Mutual Progressive News[161] was launched for Top 40 and country outlets and was also made available for non-commercial educational stations in markets without an existing Mutual affiliate.[159] Little later oversaw the 1978 launch of the Mutual Southwest Network, a regional "mininetwork" that handled distribution for the Dallas Cowboys Radio Network and featured Southwest Conference football games.[162] In 1976, 49 percent of MBN ownership was sold to the Sheridan Broadcasting Corporation[163] followed by the remaining 51 percent in 1979, at which point MBN was renamed the Sheridan Broadcasting Network[111][164] and later merged into National Black Network to create American Urban Radio Networks.[165]
While Mutual Broadcasting Corp. was initially a group controlled by Fraim and Berry, investor Benjamin D. Gilbert and his wife quietly bought out their stakes and that of the other investors, becoming the principal owners.[3] The Gilberts would attract unwanted attention for themselves over one particular program. In 1974, the Liberty Lobby, a think tank and lobby group that espoused far-right views and antisemitism, purchased airtime for a daily five-minute show, This Is Liberty Lobby, which also offered the organization's "America First" pamphlet at the end of every episode. While not directly from Mutual, it was made available to the network's over 600 stations, with 126 carrying it by July. The Anti-Defamation League alleged the Mutual connection came as the Gilberts personally contributed thousands of dollars to the Liberty Lobby since 1966.[166] After refusing to transmit two specific episodes in November, Mutual cancelled the Liberty Lobby contract at year's end.[167][159]
In the March 21, 1977, issue of Broadcasting magazine, publisher
Rise of the call-in talk show
One of the few primary network programs outside of news and sports that Mutual initiated during this era, rapidly became one of the most successful in its history—the first nationwide, all-night call-in
Mutual dropped Jepko's show in May 1977, replacing it with the husband and wife team of Long John Nebel and Candy Jones from WMCA in New York City, whose program fared little better than Jepko's.[177][159] Nebel and Jones left Mutual by the end of the year and Mutual then hired a virtually unknown local talk show host at WIOD in Miami: Larry King. On January 30, 1978, the Larry King Show made its national debut on Mutual.[178] Initially heard over 28 stations, by late 1979, King's increasingly popular all-night program was being carried by nearly 200 stations[179] with a nightly audience of around 2 million listeners.[180] During the early 1980s, the Larry King Show continued to attract new affiliates to the network.[179][181] Like Jepko, King also shied away from controversial subjects on the show, with regular callers to the show being given pseudonyms or nicknames by King himself.[181]
Originally a five-and-a-half hour program, the last half hour was relaunched as America in The Morning, a morning news magazine hosted by WCFL alumnus Jim Bohannon, in September 1984.[182][183] King continued with his Mutual call-in show until 1994, long after he began hosting Larry King Live for CNN in 1985.[180][184] King's success soon prompted NBC Radio and ABC Radio to launch NBC Talknet and ABC TalkRadio, respectively, both featured call-in shows airing into the late-evening and overnight hours.[179] The Larry King Show also won a Peabody Award for Mutual in 1982.[180]
Mutual made additional ventures beyond talk programming and newscasts. Along with the network's existing sports coverage, Mutual was the national radio broadcaster for Monday Night Football from 1970 through 1977.[185] Mutual began nationally distributing Jamboree USA from WWVA in Wheeling, West Virginia, on February 23, 1979, marking the first time in years that the network featured a regularly scheduled live music program.[186] Jamboree USA also became the first music program on radio to be transmitted by satellite;[171] the new technology now further enabled Mutual to offer additional music programming to affiliates, including anthologies and concerts.[187]
1980s–1990s: The end of Mutual
Joining up with Westwood One
With their purchase of WCFL still pending, Amway acquired a second station for Mutual with New York City's WHN from Storer Broadcasting on February 26, 1979, for $14 million (equivalent to $58.8 million in 2023), at the time the second-highest purchase price for a radio station.[188] Supplanting WMCA as Mutual's New York outlet, the deal closed on March 3, 1980.[189] Re-branded "Mutual/CFL", WCFL was relaunched in August 1979 as the flagship for Mutual Lifestyle Radio, a form of talk radio oriented towards light conversation.[190] On a Country Road, a country music show hosted by WHN's Lee Arnold, was given national distribution.[191] Also in March 1980, Mutual picked up the Sears Radio Theater after CBS Radio dropped it, renaming it Mutual Radio Theater. While a number of well-regarded episodes were produced, the series ended on December 19, 1980,[192][193] and was Mutual's final radio drama.[194] The Mutual Southwest Network also closed at the end of 1980; in both cases, Mutual Radio Theater and Mutual Southwest suffered from a lack of advertising support.[193]
In 1981, Mutual launched Dick Clark's National Music Survey, a three-hour-long weekly program combining music and interviews, a show Clark continued to host for even after having co-founded a competing syndicator, United Stations Radio Networks, earlier in the year.[191][195] Sports commentaries were added featuring the likes of Tommy Lasorda and Pat Summerall, along with hourly "Wide Weekend of Sports" sportscasts throughout the weekend; the network also held play-by-play rights to Notre Dame college football, the PGA Tour, the LPGA, the United States Tennis Association and regional rights for four NFL teams.[182]
When I entered this business, everybody I'd meet wanted to talk to me about
O&O's and I remember the first staff meeting I ever had at Mutual after we bought it, and I went in and I met everybody, and they said, "What about O&O's?" And I remember my answer was, "What's an O&O?" Well they all kind of laughed. Then they all told me that that was the way to go. We had to own a bunch of radio stations. Well, I didn't buy a network to think I had to buy a bunch of radio stations—I thought I'd already bought something.
Mutual's satellite network was fully online by 1982, but the new technology allowed for additional networks to emerge, some—including efforts from NBC, ABC, CBS, RKO, Satellite Music Network and Transtar—providing continuous programming to radio stations on a "turnkey" basis.[197] WCFL also failed to meet the network's expectations. Chuck Swirsky, hired as an evening sports talk host, later called WCFL "... the lowest rated 50-thousand watts station in American broadcast history. We had blank pages for logs. Zero commercial inventory. Any PSA content our traffic department received we immediately played on the air that night."[198] As Mutual celebrated its 50th anniversary, Amway denied rumors of a possible sale[182] but executive Richard DeVos admitted the company was disappointed with their venture into broadcasting, calling Mutual "a learning experience" and their stewardship of WCFL "not a very good one ... I began to question whether our people really knew how to run a radio station".[196] Network president John Brian Clements asserted "this network is not for sale",[199] but the radio stations were: WCFL was sold to Statewide Broadcasting in November 1983 at a $4 million loss[200] and WHN was sold to Doubleday Broadcasting in October 1984 at a $1 million loss.[201] Clements took over as president when Amway's board called for the resignation of several executives and followed downsizing due to "softening sales".[199][111]
In 1985, Westwood One, a radio production company and syndicator based in Culver City, California, sought to expand its operations. Westwood and Mutual were a good match: the demographics of Mutual affiliates tended to be adult, while most of the stations that bought Westwood's music-oriented programming had substantially younger audiences.[202] Mutual had news operations Westwood lacked, and although down from its peak, still commanded 860 affiliates and generated $25 million in revenue, a strong second among the Big Four.[203][204] In September 1985, Amway sold the network to Westwood One for $39 million (equivalent to $110 million in 2023)[205] outside of the satellite services division and uplink facility, which Amway retained.[203][206] "It's a perfect fit," declared Westwood head Norman J. Pattiz. Referring to the united company's ability to give advertisers access to a broad demographic sweep, he called it "a classic case of two plus two equaling five."[207] On July 20, 1987, the number got even bigger: Westwood One snapped up the NBC Radio Network for $50 million (equivalent to $134 million in 2023),[208] pursuing Mutual's long-time competitor since a planned sale of the network and NBC's radio stations to Westinghouse Broadcasting fell through.[209]
Mutual was now part of a much larger programming service, and its identity was being gradually phased out. In 1987, Mutual's longform fare, including Larry King and Toni Grant, were placed in a new service called "Mutual P.M.", which Westwood One touted as "clon(ing) a new network from the existing network" in hopes of attracting new advertisers.[210] NBC Radio's news and engineering staff was combined with Mutual personnel at the Arlington facility in 1989, and by 1992, programming between the two networks began to undergo consolidation, particularly in overnights and weekends.[206][208] King switched his all-night radio show to a shorter daytime version on February 1, 1993, with the late-night slot going to Jim Bohannon;[211] in addition to hosting America in The Morning, Bohannon had been King's fill-in host since 1981 and later hosted his own weekend call-in program on Mutual with the same format as King's.[212] King's daytime show ended in June 1994[184][213] and was replaced with a talk show hosted by comedian David Brenner, which lasted for two years.[214] Westwood One began simulcasting the television audio of King's nightly CNN talk show Larry King Live,[206] which continued through the end of 2009.[215] Outside of Bohannon's show, most Mutual programming was now being heard on smaller market stations, with many affiliates using it as a "backup" to a different primary affiliation; by 1999, Mutual News was down to approximately 300 affiliates.[208]
Consolidation, streamlining and dissolution
Meanwhile, Westwood One began to be subject to larger
"In this world of media brand names, there's so much synergy that's involved, and Mutual had to hang out there by itself. It was very hard to support it."
Nick Kiernan, Westwood One vice president of affiliate relations, on the 1999 retirement of the "Mutual News" name[208]
In early 1999, Westwood One announced that it would retire the Mutual name and end newscast production, with CNN Radio, CBS or
While the dropping of the Mutual name was attributed to mass consolidation, in particular following passage of the 1996 Telecommunications Act,[218] Dick Rosse, a Mutual Broadcasting System correspondent for 36 years until his retirement in 1998, wrote the following for an op-ed in Broadcasting & Cable:[2]
The Mutual Broadcasting System died (this week) and, aside from the folks who worked there, you'd have to go a long way to find anyone who was saddened, or even cared. Certainly, word of Mutual's demise was not a subject of discussion among the suits over lunch at "21" or the Four Seasons. Maybe out there, in the boonies (Mutual's natural habitat) some listener might sense that something had vanished from his radio universe. Old age killed Mutual. That, and increasing irrelevance in a world that associates "radio" with Rush, Howard and Doctor Laura. So when Jack Kevorkian (in the guise of CBS head Mel Karmazin) paid his call, Mutual didn't need much of a push.
The Crystal City facility was closed in March 2001, with Westwood One's primary operations transferred to the CBS Broadcast Center in New York City.[221]
Legacy
Jim Bohannon's interview/call-in show, which debuted on Mutual in 1985 (and was a direct descendant of Larry King and Herb Jepko's shows), continued until his abrupt retirement on October 14, 2022.[227] Rich Valdés took over hosting duties for the program which became Rich Valdés America at Night in January, 2023.[228] Bohannon missed much of the summer of 2022 for what were initially unexplained reasons but was later revealed to be a diagnosis of terminal stage 4 esophageal cancer,[227] and died 29 days after his final show. Bohannon also hosted the morning news magazine America in the Morning from its 1984 premiere over Mutual until 2015;[229][230] America in the Morning continues to this day as a Westwood One program under Bohannon's successor as host, John Trout.[183]
Since 2004, the current incarnation of
After taking over Westwood One in 2013, Cumulus Media launched a
Mutual founding stations WOR and WLW are now both owned by iHeartMedia, who operates their own syndication unit, Premiere Networks. Prior to being purchased by iHeartMedia in 2012 (as Clear Channel Communications), WOR operated a syndication service of their own, the WOR Radio Network.[239] The other founding station, WGN, is owned by television broadcaster Nexstar Media Group as the lone radio station in their portfolio.[240] WGN previously syndicated Orion Samuelson farm reports through its Tribune Radio Network,[241] which carried Chicago Cubs broadcasts until the 2014 season.[242]
Awards and honors
The Mutual Broadcasting System has been the recipient of the following Peabody Awards:[243]
- 1941 Peabody Award: Outstanding Achievement in Music—Alfred Wallenstein (co-honored with WOR)
- 1944 Peabody Award: Outstanding Educational Program—Human Adventure
- 1946 Peabody Award Honorable Mention: Meet the Press
- 1950 Peabody Award Honorable Mention: Contribution to International Understanding—Pursuit of Peace (co-honored with United Nations Radio)
- 1956 Peabody Award: The Bob and Ray Show (co-honored with NBC)
- 1982 Peabody Award: The Larry King Show
- 1987 Peabody Award: Charities That Give and Take
See also
Notable programs
Shows heard over the Mutual Broadcasting System during the "Golden Age of Radio" included the following:[o]
- Abbott Mysteries, 1945–1947
- Adventure Parade, 1946–1949
- The Adventures of Champion, 1949
- The Adventures of Father Brown, 1945
- The Adventures of Maisie, 1952
- The Adventures of Superman, 1942–1949
- The Amazing Nero Wolfe, 1945
- A. L. Alexander's Mediation Board, 1943–1952
- Archie Andrews, 1944
- Arch Oboler's Plays, 1945
- The Black Museum, 1952
- Blackstone, the Magic Detective, 1948–1949[244]
- Captain Midnight, 1940–1942; 1945–1949; 1949
- Charlie Chan, 1935–1945 (original series); 1947–1948 (reruns)
- Chick Carter, Boy Detective, 1943–1945
- The Cisco Kid, 1942–1945; 1946 (regional)
- The Couple Next Door, 1937
- The Crime Club, 1946–1947
- Crime Does Not Pay, 1952
- Dick Tracy, 1935–1937
- Family Theater, 1947–1957
- Hopalong Cassidy, 1950
- Hop Harrigan, 1946–1948
- I Love a Mystery, 1949–1952
- It Pays to Be Ignorant, 1942; 1943–1944
- Johnny Modero, Pier 23, 1947
- Land of the Lost, 1945–1946
- Mandrake the Magician, 1940–1942
- Mark Trail, 1950–1951
- Martin Kane, Private Eye, 1949–1951
- Red Ryder, 1942; 1942–1949 (regional)
- Queen for a Day, 1945–1947
- The Saint, 1949–1950
- The Lone Ranger, 1933–1954
- The Sea Hound, 1946–1947
- The Sealed Book, 1945
- The Shadow, 1937–1954
- Sky King, 1950–1954
- Skyroads, 1939[245]
- The Two Ton Baker Show, 1948–1949[246]
- Vic and Sade, 1946
- Voyage of the Scarlet Queen, 1947–1948
- The Zane Grey Show, 1947–1948
Notable staff
- Jim Bohannon, talk show host[229]
- Tom Cheek, sportscaster
- Raymond Clapper, commentator
- Bud Collyer, actor
- Chuck Connors, actor
- Dizzy Dean, sportscaster
- Gene Elston, sportscaster
- Bob Feller, sportscaster
- Tex Fletcher, singing cowboy
- Eli Gold, sportscaster
- Morton Gould, conductor/arranger/pianist
- Toni Grant, talk-show host
- Ray Heatherton, musical actor
- Gabriel Heatter, commentator
- Skitch Henderson, conductor/arranger/pianist
- Ernest Holmes, religion-show host
- Quincy Howe, commentator
- Wilbur Budd Hulick, comic actor
- Herb Jepko, talk show host
- Candy Jones, talk show host
- Larry King, talk show host[180]
- Fredell Lack, violinist
- Fulton Lewis, commentator
- Fulton Lewis III, commentator
- Tony Marvin, newscaster
- Long John Nebel, talk show host
- Lindsey Nelson, sportscaster
- Van Patrick, sportscaster
- Drew Pearson, commentator
- Robert Ripley, trivia-show host
- Ed Salamon, programming executive
- Cesare Sodero, conductor
- Bill Stern, sportscaster
- Raymond Gram Swing, commentator
- Aloysius Michael Sullivan, announcer
- Phil Tonken, announcer
- Westbrook Van Voorhis, newscaster
Notes
- ^ a b Not to be confused with ABC Audio.
- ^ a b The following sources argue that Mutual was primarily a vehicle for The Lone Ranger.[10][11][12] These sources, however, counterargue that Mutual was built on the popularity of Lum and Abner.[13][14][15]
- ^ All available sources concur that Mutual cofounders WOR–Newark, N.J./New York, WXYZ–Detroit, and WLW–Cincinnati were also founding members of the Quality Network. Sources differ on whether WGN–Chicago, Mutual's fourth original member, or another Chicago station, WLS, represented the city in the Quality Network. In addition, there is no consensus on the fundamental matter of the degree of connection involved: some sources claim the Quality Network had ceased to exist by the end of 1929; others that it carried on and simply changed its name and formalized its structure in 1934. As scholar James Schwoch (1994) puts it, "The origins of the Mutual Broadcasting System are somewhat murky and open to dispute." Indeed, a claim Schwoch makes just two sentences later—that "the permanent establishment of the Mutual network is bound up in the popularity of a single radio program, 'The Lone Ranger'"—is disputed by several scholars.[b]
- ^ Start and end dates for original dramatic and quiz series given in the main text are based on the standard and most comprehensive reference work, On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio, by John Dunning.[36] Dunning's detailed information has been checked, where available, against the even more detailed reports of Jerry Haendiges[37] and against the much less detailed but more recently published The Encyclopedia of American Radio: An A–Z Guide to Radio from Jack Benny to Howard Stern, by Ron Lackmann.[38] Dunning and Haendiges agree in almost all cases where they both cover a show. In the few cases where they differ slightly, a specific citation is given to the one whose data appears better supported, internally and/or by reference to Lackmann.
- ^ There are anecdotal suggestions that the network aired the Indianapolis 500 in previous years, but to date no concrete evidence has been found. For later Mutual coverage of the race, see:[43]
- ^ The two available authoritative sources differ widely on the affiliate figures for the year. Media historians F. Leslie Smith et al. give Mutual—140, NBC—113 (53 with Red, 60 with Blue), and CBS—112.[54] Media historian James Schwoch gives NBC—182, Mutual—160, and CBS—122.[12] It is unclear what different methodologies were employed to produce these varying results.
- ^ For advertising sales in the first eight months of 1941, see "Happy Birthday MBS", from the September 15, 1941, issue of Time.[56] NBC's take was now less than eight times as much as Mutual's. All available reports suggest that the gap did not close much further during the decade.
- ^ Media historian Marsha Francis Cassidy also refers to Mutual's wish-fulfillment show Heart's Desire as one of those that "made the shift to local or regional television",[67] but it has not been possible to confirm this. For a detailed account of this model of radio art, see:[68]
- ^ A scholarly journal article claims that the Don Lee purchase brought with it a "19 percent interest in the Mutual Broadcasting System," which would be down from the 25 percent of the 1940 restructuring. However, the reliability of this source is questionable, as it incorrectly claims in the same paragraph that the "East Coast-based Yankee Network ... was also acquired at this time" by General Tire.[84] As detailed above, General Tire in fact acquired Yankee in 1943.
- Gillette Safety Razor Company on the other for the television rights. Day says baseball's contract was solely with Gillette, that it was for both radio and television rights, and that Gillette "[l]ess than a year after acquiring the broadcast rights ... transferred" them to Mutual. They also characterize the original contract rather differently. Marshall calls it "one of the outstanding achievements of the Chandler commissionership." Day credits Chandler with "deftly avoid[ing] a financial crisis," but agrees with the prevailing opinion of the players that Chandler "vastly underestimated the value" of the rights. The fact, which Day provides, that Mutual sold the package to NBC for $4 million a year lends support to his position.[87]
- Peter Gravessaid to have run from 1951 to 1955 on the Mutual Television Network (p. 596).
- ^ In August 1951, the low-powered, baseball-oriented Liberty Broadcasting System (LBS) had 431 affiliates.[92]
- ^ For more on The Zero Hour, see:[136]
- National Baseball Hall of Fame lists among famed broadcaster France Laux's credits "Mutual Game of the Day (1939–41, '44)."[140]
- ^ Run dates on Mutual are per Dunning (1998), checked against Lackmann (2000). Note that Dunning does not list The Sea Hound as ever running on Mutual, but Lackmann does. Neither lists Skyroads.
References
- ISBN 978-0-87972-821-2. Archivedfrom the original on February 10, 2023. Retrieved November 18, 2020.
Mutual Reports eventually became Mutual Black Network (MBN)
- ^ a b Rosse, Dick (April 19, 1999). "How Sweet It Was" (PDF). Broadcasting & Cable. Vol. 129, no. 16. pp. 74, 76. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 9, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ a b c d "Sale of Mutual reported in work at $15 million" (PDF). Broadcasting. Vol. 93, no. 7. August 15, 1977. p. 20. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 12, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ a b c d "High Finance: The Price of Publicity". Time. Vol. LXXIV, no. 11. September 14, 1959. p. 94. Archived from the original on February 10, 2023. Retrieved February 9, 2023.
- ISBN 978-1-4396-5836-9. Archivedfrom the original on February 10, 2023. Retrieved November 18, 2020.
- ^ Robinson (1979), p. 28.
- ^ Cox (2015), p. 177.
- ^ McLeod, Elizabeth (1999–2002). "Some History of the Mutual Broadcasting System". History of American Broadcasting (Jeff Miller). Archived from the original on May 13, 2008. Retrieved March 1, 2010. Extensive discussion of the network's history and organization by radio historian. Note that the page's introductory content (not written by McLeod) gives September 15, 1934, as the network's organizational date, apparently based on a 1999 newspaper article reproduced at the bottom of the page. All authoritative sources, including McLeod, give September 29. (The newspaper article also incorrectly states that the network featured commentator Drew Pearson; it never did. His shows appeared on NBC and NBC Blue/ABC. See, e.g., Nimmo & Newsome (1997), p. 271. The article also incorrectly suggests that when The Lone Ranger "rode into the radio sunset in 1954," it directly affected the network. The show hadn't been on Mutual since 1942.)
- ^ Dunning (1998), p. 724.
- ^ Olson (2000), p. 173.
- ^ Head (1976), p. 142.
- ^ a b c Schwoch (1994).
- ^ Hilmes (1997), pp. 107–108.
- ^ Hollis (2001), p. 41.
- ^ McLeod, Elizabeth (April 12, 1999). "Some History of the Mutual Broadcasting System/Correspondence: 'Mon, 12 APR 99'". History of American Broadcasting (Jeff Miller). Archived from the original on May 13, 2008. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ Whitaker (2002), pp. 537–538
- ^ Gorman, Calhoun & Rozin (1994), p. 105.
- ^ "Adcraft" (PDF). Advertising Age. December 5, 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2009. Retrieved March 1, 2010. "The Lone Ranger Episode Log". Jerry Haendiges' Vintage Radio Logs. February 18, 2005. Archived from the original on August 24, 2000. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ a b c "Business & Finance: M. B. S." Time. Vol. XXIX, no. 1. January 4, 1937. pp. 39–40. Archived from the original on February 11, 2023. Retrieved February 10, 2023.
- ^ Alexander (2002), p. 110.
- ^ Gorman, Calhoun & Rozin (1994), p. 89.
- ^ See, e.g., Patterson (2004), p. 90.
- ^ "The Colonial Network". BostonRadio.org. Archived from the original on May 1, 2001. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ Christopher H. Sterling and Michael C. Keith. Sounds of Change: A History of FM Broadcasting in America. University of North Carolina Press, 2009, p. 24.
- ^ a b "Cleveland Switch to Occur Sept. 26" (PDF). Broadcasting-Broadcast Advertising. Vol. 13, no. 6. September 15, 1937. p. 15. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 8, 2021. Retrieved December 9, 2021 – via World Radio History.
- ^
- "Station Guide/WGAR-AM". Cleveland Broadcast Radio Archives. Archived from the original on May 9, 2008. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- "A play-by-play retrospective: 1936" (PDF). Broadcasting. Vol. 79, no. 18. November 2, 1970. pp. 80, 82. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 10, 2023 – via World Radio History. This source also states "WLW(AM) Cincinnati turns in its Mutual stock but remains as outlet" which is in error as WLW never held any stock and left the network to join NBC (see, e.g., Schramm (1969), p. 51).
- ^ Schneider, John F. (2009). "The History of KFRC, San Francisco and the Don Lee Networks". Bay Area Radio Museum. Archived from the original on September 17, 2010. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ Clarke (1996), ch. 11 (available online). Archived May 16, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b "The Boston Radio Timeline". BostonRadio.org. Archived from the original on June 20, 2010. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ a b Cox (2002), p. 178.
- Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b c "National Broadcasting Co., Inc., et al. v. United States et al. (U.S. Supreme Court decision)". Freedom of Speech in the United States—Free Speech Library. Boston College. May 10, 1943. Archived from the original on March 5, 2010. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ Brady (1990), p. 78.
- ^ Hilmes (1997), pp. 99–100.
- ^ Jaker, Sulek & Kanze (1998), p. 129.
- ^ Dunning (1998).
- ^ Haendiges, Jerry (1996). "Jerry Haendiges' Vintage Radio Logs". Jerry Haendiges Productions. Archived from the original on December 5, 2006. Retrieved February 10, 2023.
- ^ Lackmann (2000).
- ^ Callow (1995), p. 321.
- ^ "Green Hornet Episode Log". Jerry Haendiges' Vintage Radio Logs. January 29, 2004. Archived from the original on February 17, 2010. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ McDougal (2001), p. 68.
- ^ Highway Traveler 11, no. 2 (April–May 1939), p. 27.
- ^ "1949 Indianapolis 500". Speedway Audio. Archived from the original on March 21, 2007. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ Bliss (1991), pp. 34, 36.
- ^ Bliss (1991), pp. 60–61.
- ^ Nimmo & Newsome (1997), p. 173.
- ^ Brown (1998), p. 180.
- ^ Bliss (1991), pp. 97–98.
- ^ Rose (1971), p. 68.
- ^ Nimmo & Newsome (1997), p. 178.
- ^ Robinson (1979), p. 29.
- ^ Jaker et al. (1998), p. 93.
- ^ "Radio: Rubber Yankee". Time. Vol. XLI, no. 3. January 18, 1943. p. 88. Archived from the original on February 10, 2023. Retrieved February 10, 2023.
- ^ a b Smith, Wright II & Ostroff (1998), p. 43.
- ^ See Robinson (1979), pp. 26–27, 29.
- ^ "Radio: Happy Birthday MBS". Time. Vol. XXXVIII, no. 11. September 15, 1941. pp. 57–58. Archived from the original on February 11, 2023. Retrieved February 10, 2023.
- ^ Quoted in Robinson (1979), p. 116.
- ^ "Chains Unchained?" Time, May 12, 1941 (available online).
- ^ Quoted in Robinson (1979), p. 74.
- ^ "Mutual Seeks to End Action Against RCA; Official Says Transfer of Blue Network Will Solve Issue," New York Times, October 12, 1943.
- ^ "AM Network-Affiliated Radio Stations, 1949". 1949 Broadcasting-Telecasting Yearbook. History of American Broadcasting (Jeff Miller). December 6, 1948. Archived from the original on May 16, 2008. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ Leblebici et al. (1991), p. 17 (online pagination).
- ^ Segrave (1999), p. 22. For more on the evaporation of Mutual's TV plans, see Schwoch (1994).
- ^ Cox (2002), p. 83.
- ^ Nachmann (2000), p. 350.
- ^ Cassidy (2005), pp. 40–43, 187–188.
- ^ a b Cassidy (2005), p. 41.
- ^ "Kovacs v. Mutual Broadcasting System (1950) 99 CA2d 56 (California 2d District Court ruling)". Continuing Education of the Bar—California (University of California/State Bar of California). August 18, 1950. Archived from the original on February 11, 2023. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ "—Miller Center". Archived from the original on July 9, 2015. Retrieved September 14, 2015. Roosevelt, Franklin D. "Fireside Chat 27: On the Tehran and Cairo Conferences (December 24, 1943)". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved July 6, 2016.
- ^ Bliss (1991), p. 65.
- ^ "History: Chronology (1940 to 1959)". Pro Football Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on April 8, 2010. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ Brown (1998), pp. 183, 190.
- ^ Bliss (1991), p. 135; "WOR: Interruption of Giants-Dodgers Football Game". Authentic History Center. December 7, 1941. Archived from the original on May 10, 2013. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ Crook (1998), pp. 206–207.
- ^ Nimmo & Newsome (1997), p. 311.
- ^ Bliss (1991), pp. 202–203.
- ^ Savage (1999), p. 345 n. 123.
- ^ "WGN Radio Timeline: 1940s–1950s". WGN Gold. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Retrieved March 1, 2010. "Chicago Theater of the Air Episode Log". Jerry Haendiges' Vintage Radio Logs. April 15, 2008. Archived from the original on March 6, 2005. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ "Sherlock Holmes Episode Log". Jerry Haendiges' Vintage Radio Logs. July 6, 2008. Archived from the original on April 3, 2012. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
- ^ a b Dunning (1998), p. 382.
- ^ Cassidy (2005), p. 20.
- ^ a b "Executive, 35, in Don Lee's Top Role". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. Associated Press. December 18, 1950. p. 10-Section III. Archived from the original on February 17, 2023. Retrieved February 17, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b "Sale of Don Lee System Approved: Cash Payment of $12,320,000 Involved in FCC Decision". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. United Press. December 28, 1950. p. 4-Section I. Archived from the original on February 17, 2023. Retrieved February 17, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ Crane (1980).
- ^ "Pauley Protest Made on Sale of Don Lee Stock". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. December 19, 1950. p. 23-Part I. Archived from the original on February 17, 2023. Retrieved February 17, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ "Arguments on Don Lee Radio Sale Requested". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. December 20, 1950. p. 22-Section I. Archived from the original on February 17, 2023. Retrieved February 17, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b Marshall (1998), p. 384; Day (2004), pp. 230–231.
- ^ "Radio-TV Merger Approved By F.C.C.; Deal Covers Macy's Transfer of WOR Interests to General Tire's Don Lee System", New York Times, January 18, 1952; "Earnings Fall 5% for Macy System; Television's High Cost for Subsidiary, General Teleradio, Cuts Consolidated Net," New York Times, October 11, 1950; Howard (1979), pp. 150–52.
- ^ "General Tire Gets Control of M. B. S.; Shareholders at Meeting Vote 2-for-1 Stock Split—Company Buys More TV Stations," New York Times, April 2, 1952.
- ^ "O'Neil MBS President: White Resigns, Fineshriber Director" (PDF). Broadcasting-Telecasting. Vol. 42, no. 17. April 28, 1952. pp. 23, 34. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ Cox (2015), p. 178; see also pp. 127–128, for the 1950 and 1960 figures for the four major networks.
- ^ Garay (1992), p. 32.
- ^ a b c d "MBS may pull the plug this week" (PDF). Broadcasting-Telecasting. Vol. 53, no. 3. July 15, 1957. pp. 31–32. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ a b c "Mutual maps drastic moves to bolster sales, ratings" (PDF). Broadcasting-Telecasting. Vol. 45, no. 1. July 6, 1953. p. 27. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ "Mutual, affiliates meeting routine; program payment plan not revived" (PDF). Broadcasting-Telecasting. Vol. 46, no. 4. January 25, 1954. p. 74. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ "CKLW-AM-TV shares purchased by RKO" (PDF). Broadcasting-Telecasting. Vol. 50, no. 15. April 9, 1956. p. 111. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 29, 2021. Retrieved February 14, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ "Brisk buying surge swaps four stations, $7.7 million" (PDF). Broadcasting-Telecasting. Vol. 50, no. 15. April 9, 1956. pp. 35–36. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 29, 2021. Retrieved February 14, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ "Thumbnail History of RKO Radio Pictures". home.earthlink.net. Archived from the original on September 12, 2005. Retrieved August 27, 2018.
- ^ a b "MBS unveils sales plan in Chicago" (PDF). Broadcasting-Telecasting. Vol. 50, no. 17. April 23, 1956. pp. 104, 107. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ "WHK succeeds KYW as NBC affiliate" (PDF). Broadcasting-Telecasting. Vol. 51, no. 5. July 30, 1956. p. 58. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ "Mutual Seeks Station After WGN Bows Out" (PDF). Broadcasting-Telecasting. Vol. 50, no. 19. May 7, 1956. p. 88. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ "Mutual Shows for Chicago To Be Carried by ABC's WLS" (PDF). Broadcasting-Telecasting. Vol. 51, no. 5. July 30, 1956. p. 60. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ Shepard, Richard F. (July 17, 1957). "Sale of Mutual Expected Today; Radio Network Is Going to Group From West Coast". New York Times. p. 41. Archived from the original on February 14, 2023. Retrieved February 13, 2023.
- ^ "Time of trial for radio networks: Mutual takes worst buffeting but others have their troubles, too" (PDF). Broadcasting. Vol. 56, no. 10. March 9, 1959. pp. 35, 38, 40, 42. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 13, 2023 – via World Radio History.
- ^ See Bareiss & Leigh (1998), pp. 379–382; in particular, p. 381, for the development of limited sponsorship.
- ^ Garay (1992), p. 64.
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External links
- Mutual Broadcasting System — Western States Museum of Broadcasting
- How Far Should the Government Control Radio? text of G.I. Roundtable pamphlet with details on Mutual in first section ("Who Is It That Fills The Air With Radio Waves?"), ca. 1945; part of American Historical Association website
- Reporters' Roundup Transcript radio broadcast transcript of group interview with guest U.S. Senator Everett M. Dirksenon weekly Mutual news program, September 16, 1957; part of Everett Dirksen Center website
- Truman Library—Charter Heslep Papers summary introduction to and listing of archive holdings of Mutual broadcaster's papers (note that the Collection Description text incorrectly states that Chicago station WLS was an original member of Mutual; while it may have been involved in the predecessor Quality Network, it was not part of Mutual); part of Truman Presidential Museum and Library website
Listening
- Gabriel Heatter on the Doolittle Raid audio extract from news report, May 10, 1942; part of Authentic History Center website
- Mutual: Blackout on the West Coast audio extract from news report, December 8, 1941; part of Authentic History Center website
- Spotlight on Golden Age Networks—MBS links to audio samples of classic Mutual shows (note that the Lone Ranger sample comes from 1948, after the show had left Mutual); part of Digital Deli Online
- WOR: Interruption of Giants–Dodgers Football Game audio clip of news flash, December 7, 1941; part of Authentic History Center website