Mysore literature in Kannada
Mysore literature in Kannada is a body of literature composed in the
During an age of revival and innovation, some Mysore court poets brought back the classical
The men of letters in the Mysore royal court included not only the court poets, who were often quite prolific, but also on occasion the rulers themselves.
Pre-16th century literature
Developments | Date |
---|---|
Birth of the Yakshagana play | 1565–1620 CE |
Dominance of Vaishnava and Veerashaiva literature |
17th–20th century CE |
Historicals and Biographies. Revival of classical . Vaishnava epics and poems |
1600–1700 CE |
Writings by Mysore Royalty | 1630 onward |
Revival of Haridasa literature Popularity of Yakshagana play |
1700 CE onward |
Birth of Modern literature | 1820–1900 CE |
By the mid-16th century, Kannada literature had been influenced by three important socio-religious developments:
Jain works were written in the classical champu metre and were centred on the lives of
The Vaishnava writers of the 15th and early 16th century
Developments from 16th century
Court and monastic literature
After the decline of the
Folk and didactic literature
Yakshagana (lit. "Songs of the demi-gods") is a composite folk-dance-drama or folk theatre of southern India which combines literature, music, dance and painting into. The best-known forms of this art are from the Dakshina Kannada, Udupi district, Uttara Kannada and to some extent from the Shimoga district of modern Karnataka.[35][36][37] There are a variety of dance-dramas collectively termed as Yakshagana. The Yakshagana Tenkutittu (lit. "Yakshagana of the southern style") is popular primarily in the Mangalore region and the Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalaata (lit. "Yakshagana of northern style performed outdoors") is popular in Udupi and surrounding regions.[38] Other art forms also grouped under Yakshagana are the Nagamandalam, a dance meant to appease the deity Naga, and a variety of bhuta (spirit) dances.[36] The "Yakshagana Tenkutittu" is more akin to the classical Kathakali of Kerala.[36]
According to modern Kannada writer
Haridasa Sahitya, the devotional literature of the Vaishnava saints of Karnataka, flourished in the 15th and 16th centuries under the guidance of such saint-poets as
After a break of more than three centuries, writing of vachana poems was revived. Though some poets such as Tontada Siddhalingayati (1540), Swatantra Siddhalingeswara (1565), Ganalingideva (1560), Shanmukha Swamy (1700), Kadasiddheswara (1725) and Kadakolu Madivallappa (1780) attempted to re-popularise the tradition with noteworthy pieces, they lacked the mastery of the 12th century social reformers.
Modern literature
The birth of modern expression in the Kannada language can be traced to the early 19th century, a transition that in later decades included the influence of English literature on local traditions.[57] The earliest examples of modern literature came in the form of prose, either inspired by or renderings of Sanskrit classics, in the court of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. The king himself was an accomplished Kannada writer to whom is ascribed the prose romance Saugandhika Parinaya.[57] Under the patronage of the king, Kempu Narayana wrote Mudramanjusha ("The Seal Casket", 1823), a historical novel and an innovative version of the Sanskrit original, Mudrarakshasa by Vishaka Datta. This work is considered the trailblazer in modern Kannada prose.[57]
English-language education, the role of missionaries, their translation of the Bible into Kannada in 1820, the arrival of the printing press, publication of newspapers and periodicals and the earliest Kannada-English and English-Kannada dictionaries helped to modernise Kannada prose.[58] Development of prose narrative came by way of translations of Christian classics, such as Yatrikana Sanchara (The Pilgrim's Progress, 1847). Dramatic literature got its impetus from translations of Sanskrit and English classics (Shakuntala in 1869; Macbeth, King Lear and Romeo and Juliet).[59] The modern novel, with a reformist outlook, was born in 1892. This milestone was followed by the earliest social plays with similar themes, a trend that had already set roots in the modern literature of Marathi and Bengali languages.[60] Muddanna (or Nandalike Lakshminarayana) stands out as a unique writer, whose language is Old-Kannada but whose sensibilities are modern. His two important works were Adbhuta Ramayana (1895) and Ramaswamedham (1898). The latter work is historically important to prose development – ancient epic is handled from a modern viewpoint. The narrator is the author and the listener his wife. Muddanna's declaration Padyam Vadhyam, Gadyam Hridyam (lit. "Poetry deserves killing whereas prose reaches the heart") summarises the trends in Kannada literature in the late 19th century.[61]
17th century writings
Noted Kannada poets and writers (1600-1700 CE) | |
Tirumalarya I | 1600 |
Chamaraja Wodeyar VI | 1630 |
Narasaraja Wodeyar | 1650 |
Govinda Vaidya | 1648 |
Nanjakavi | 17th c. |
Shantaveera Deshika | 1650 |
Bhaskara | 17th c. |
Timmarasa | 1650 |
Mallikarjuna | 17th c. |
Channarya | 17th c. |
Chamaiah | 1700 |
Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar | 1690 |
Tirumalarya II | 1698 |
Chikkupadhyaya | 1679 |
Lakshmanacharya | 17th c. |
Chidananda | 1675 |
Singaraya | 1680 |
Timmakavi | 1677 |
Mallarasa | 17th c. |
Srirangamma | 1685 |
Sanchi Honnamma | 17th c. |
Lakshmisa | 17th c. |
Ramachandra | 17th c. |
Tirumalevaidya | 1650 |
Nagarasa | 17th c. |
Bhattakalanka Deva | 1604 |
Padmana Pandita | 17th c. |
Chandrashekara | 17th c. |
Sarvajna | 17th c. |
Shadaksharadeva | 1655 |
Harisvara | 17th c. |
Siddhananjesa, | 17th c. |
Prasabhushana | 17th c. |
Mummadi Tamma | 17th c. |
Parvatesvara | 17th c. |
Sejjeya Siddhalingaraya | 17th c. |
Transition from Vijayanagara
With the waning of the Vijayanagara empire, Raja Wodeyar I (r. 1578–1617) became the first ruler of political importance at Mysore, having ousted the Vijayanagara governor at Srirangapatna. However, the fledgling kingdom still owed nominal allegiance to the diminished empire.[62] The foundation of an independent state that would influence regional polity and culture was laid in this period. In the following decades, the Mysore court became the inheritor of the Vijayanagara literary legacy and a centre for textual production not only in Kannada, the native language, but to some extent, even in Telugu and Sanskrit.[29] The earliest available Kannada language writings from the Mysore court are by Tirumalarya I (or Tirumala Iyengar), Raja Wodeyar I's court poet. He composed the Karna Vrittanta Kathe (c. 1600) in sangatya metre, a composition rendered to the accompaniment of an instrument.[63] Raja Wodeyar I's grandson, Chamaraja VI (r. 1617–1637), is the earliest among the Mysore kings known for their personal contribution to the fine arts. The king wrote Chamarajokti Vilasa, a translation of the Sanskrit Ramayana, in the Valmiki tradition.[62]
During the rule of King
Shadaksharadeva, who attempted to revive the classical (Sanskritised) champu metre, belonged to the
Other notable Kannada writers in the court of Kanthirava Narasaraja I (r. 1637–1659) were Shantaveera Deshika (Shivaganga Charitra in sangatya metre, 1650),[71] Bhaskara (Beharaganita, on mathematics, early 17th century), Nanjakavi (Kanthirava Narasaraja Charitra, a historical, early 17th century) and Timmarasa (Markandeya Ramayana, the story of the god Rama which forms an episode in the forest section of the epic Mahabharata, c. 1650).[72][73] Chamaiah, a court poet, wrote an account of his patron, King Dodda Devaraja Wodeyar (r. 1659–1673) in Devarajendra Sangatya (late 17th century), and Channarya wrote a metrical history of the same king in Devaraja Vijaya (late 17th century).[74] Tirumalabhatta, a court poet of the Keladi ruler Hiriya Venkatappa Nayaka (r. 1586–1629) wrote the poem Shivagita.[75]
Golden age
The reign of King
Tirumalarya II, a native of Srirangapatna and a descendant of Tirumalarya I, was held in high esteem in the Mysore court. A childhood friend of the King Chikka Devaraja, he served as his minister.[82] Tirumalarya II authored five notable writings: Chikka Devaraja Saptapadi (saptapadi metre, 1698), an important musical treatise rendered in seven sections comprising fifty-two songs which exalts the patron king to the level of "God on Earth";[83] Apratimavira Charite ("History of the Peerless Hero"), a rhetorical eulogy of the king and a treatise on poetics; Chikkadevaraja Vijaya, an account of the king's conquests, his life and his ancestors, in the champu metre comprising six chapters; Chikkadevaraya Yaso-bhushana; and the prose piece Chikkadevaraja Vamshavali, one of the earliest available contemporary historicals in Kannada language describing the king's ancestry.[84][85] In addition, Tirumalarya II composed seventy songs, most of which are in Kannada and a few in Telugu.[86]
Minister
Lakshmisa, a superb story-teller, a dramatist and a Vaishnava by faith, is one of the most well-known writers of kavyas (narrative poems). Kannada scholar H.S. Shiva Prakash opines he lived in the mid-16th century, but R. Narasimhacharya and historian Nilakanta Sastri claim he was active in the late 17th century, probably during the rule of King Chikka Devaraja.[90][91] His Jaimini Bharata, written in shatpadi metre, is the poet's Kannada version of the Hindu epic Mahabharata and is one of the most popular poems of the late medieval age.[92] A collection of stories, the epic poem contains the famous tale of the Sita Parityaga ("Repudiation of Sita"). The author has succeeded in converting a religious story into a very human tale, making it popular even in modern times. For his deft usage of the language, the poet earned the honorific Upamalola (lit. "One of revels in similes and metaphors").[32]
Singaraya, a brother of Tirumalarya II, wrote Mitravinda Govinda (1680), the earliest available classical drama in Kannada. It is a play inspired by the Sanskrit drama Ratnavali ("Pearl necklace") by King Harsha of Kannauj.[93] Among notable women poets, Srirangamma (1685) wrote Padmini Kalyana ("Marriage of Padmini"), and Sanchi Honnamma, a Vokkaliga from Yelandur, wrote Hadibadeya Dharma, on the duties of a faithful wife. This work, which won her many accolades, is in nine sections, containing 479 stanzas, and is written in sangatya metre. Despite being employed as a betel bag bearer and as a maid to Queen Devajammani, she claimed Alasingaraya, a court poet, her Guru. Her work narrates the struggles of women in society, and stresses their need to fulfill their daily roles in family life.[94][95]
Other writers under the patronage of King Chikka Devaraja were: Chidananda, a
Some Brahmin writers worthy of mention from the 17th century are Ramachandra (Asrasastra), Tirumalevaidya (Uttara Ramayana, 1650), Nagarasa of Pandharpur (Bhagavadgite), Timmarasa (Kshetraganita on geometry),[68] and Venkayarya, a Haridasa of Penukonda (Krishnalilabhyudaya).[98] Among Jains, Padmana Pandita (Hayasara Samuchchaya) and Chandrashekara (Ramachandra charitra, story of the Hindu god Rama) are notable.[68] Among Veerashaiva writers, Harisvara (Prabhudeva Purana), Siddhananjesa, (Raghavanka Charitra and Gururaja Charitra), Prasabhushana (or Pemmisetti, Gurubhaktandara Charitre), Mummadi Tamma (Sankara Samhita), Parvatesvara (Chatuacharya Purana) and Sejjeya Siddhalingaraya (Malayaraja Charite) are well-known.[68]
Age of Sarvajna
Noted Kannada poets and writers (1700-1800 CE) | |
Narasaraja Wodeyar II | 1700 |
Queen Cheluvambe | 1720 |
Timmarya | 1708 |
Puttaiya | 1713 |
Chenniah | 18th c. |
Kalale Nanjaraja | 1720 |
Nurondiah | 1740 |
Sankara Kavi | 18th c. |
Payanna | 18th c. |
Padmaraja | 1792 |
Padmanabha | 18th c. |
Surala | 18th c. |
Jayendra | 18th c. |
Shalyada Krishnaraja | 18th c. |
Lakshmakavi | 1728 |
Venkatesha | 18th c. |
Konayya | 18th c. |
Timmamatya | 18th c. |
Balavaidya Cheluva | 18th c. |
A mendicant Veerashaiva poet, a moralist and a drifter whose early days are unclear, Sarvajna (lit. "The all knowing"), has left his indelible mark on Kannada literature and the Kannada-speaking people. He is known to have been a native of either Abbalur or Madagamasuru in the Dharwad district. Based on literary evidence scholars place him variously between the 16th and 18th centuries. Prabhu Prasad of the Sahitya Akademi feels he belonged to the 16th century while Kannada scholars R. Narasimhacharya and H.S. Shiva Prakash claim he lived in the 17th century.[99][100] To Sarvajna goes the credit of re-vitalising the vachana poetic tradition. His witty and didactic poems, numbering over 2,000, were written using the simple tripadi metre.[52] Some clues in his first fourteen of a series of poems ("Reminiscences of Birth") give an indication about his birth, parentage and his reasons for leaving home at an early age.[101] His poems after the 14th focus on his spiritual quest.[102]
Sarvajna, who is not known to have acquired a formal education, gained knowledge from the world, writing poems impromptu about the nature of people and places. According to the scholar Naikar, Sarvajna was born to "sing the truth and truth alone".
A begging bowl in hand,
A vast land to wander in
The great god Shiva to guard me
What cause have I to fear, O Sarvajna?
— Sarvajna, Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 191–192
Even as the tongue manages, surrounded
By the teeth; so should the good
Live among the wicked, Sarvajna.
— Sarvajna, Prasad (1987), p. 3
18th century writings
Proliferation of Yakshagana
Poet | Dates |
---|---|
Mahapati Dasa | 1611–1681 |
Krishna Dasa
(Varaha Timmappa) |
18th c. |
Vaikunta Dasa | 1680 |
Vijaya Dasa | 1687–1755 |
Gopala Dasa | 18th c. |
Subbanna Dasa | 18th c. |
Mohana Dasa | 18th c. |
Sheshagiri Dasa | 18th c. |
Prasanna Venkata Dasa | 18th c. |
Igi Venkatacharya | 18th c. |
Helavanakatte Giriyamma | 18th c. |
Venugopaladasa | 18th c. |
Jagannatha Dasa | 1728–1809 |
Vitthala Dasa | 18th c. |
Madhva Dasa | 18th c. |
Pranesha Dasa | 19th c. |
Prema Dasa | 19th c. |
Kargagi Dasappa | 19th c. |
During the first half of the 18th century Mysore's independence was delicately balanced, with the incumbent kings accepting either a nominal subordination or a strategic alliance with the larger power, the Mughals of
Yakshagana, a rustic form of theatre which draws upon themes from the Hindu epics, the
Revival of Haridasa literature
The Haridasa literature propagates the dvaita (dualistic) philosophy of Madhvacharya. Their compositions have also been of immense value to the development of music and literature in general. While Hari (a form of god Vishnu) is central to their beliefs, their compositions show tolerance to other Vaishnava deities as well. By bringing the values cherished in the
Jagannatha Dasa (1728–1809) is considered the most notable of the late-18th century Haridasas. Apart from a number of devotional songs, he is credited with two important writings. The Harikathamritasara treats on the philosophy of Madhvacharya. Written in the shatpadi metre with a poetic touch, it contains 32 chapters of 988 stanzas.[120] The Tattva Suvvali, containing 1,200 pithy and proverbial poems written in the tripadi metre, is known to have been a consolation to his widowed daughter.[120][121] Among women, Helavanakatte Giriyamma (pen-name "Helavanakatte Ranga", early 18th century) and Harapanhally Bhimava (pen-name "Bhimesa Krishna", 1890) are notable despite their humble education and background. Giriyamma authored more than forty songs, and five narrative poems, the best known among which is the devotional piece Chandrahasana Kathe.[117][122][123] In a prayer poem about famine, Giriyamma wrote:[48]
Women are taking out in vessels
Water from the well gone dry
While bringing it, they think all day:
O Hari, send the rain to us soon.
— Helavanakatte Giriyamma, Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 201
Other writings
Cheluvambe, a queen of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar I (r. 1714–1732), was an accomplished Kannada writer. Her notable works include Varanandi Kalyana, written in the sangatya metre.
Nanjaraja was the most noted of the Shaiva writers in the court of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar II (r. 1734–1766). For his literary taste, he earned the honorific "Nutana Bhojaraja", a comparison to the medieval King Bhoja. A native of Kalale town near Nanjangud, Nanjaraja came from an influential family of warriors, statesman and scholars. He was politically active and is known to have created a power centre, holding court in parallel to Krishnaraja II.[110] He was proficient in multiple languages and authored more than twenty writings in Kannada, Sanskrit and Telugu. Among his Kannada writings, Kukudgiri Mahatmya,[111] and a musical composition called Aravattu muvara trivadhi, an account of the life of 63 ancient devotees of the god Shiva, is well known.[125]
Other well-known Shaiva writers were Chenniah, who wrote in the sangatya metre (Padmini Parinaya, 1720),[126] Nuronda, who eulogised his patron Krishnaraja II in Soundarya Kavya (c. 1740) in sangatya metre, and Sankara Kavi (Chorabasava Charitre, 18th century).[127] Linganna Kavi wrote a champu historical piece called Keladinripavijayam in the 1763–1804 period accounting for the chronology and history of the Keladi dynasty. The work also gives useful information about contemporary kingdoms and states including the Nawabs of Savanur, the Marathas and the Mughals.[128] Notable Jain writers of the period were Payanna (Ahimsacharitre), Padmaraja (Pujyapada Charitre, 1792), Padmanabha (Ramachandra Charitre), Surala (Padmavati Charitre), and Jayendra (Karnataka Kuvalayananda).[111] Vaishnava writers who distinguished themselves were Lakshmakavi (Bharata in 1728 and Rukmangada Charite), Venkatesha (Halasya Mahatmya, in champu metre), Konayya (Krishnarjuna Sangara), Timmamatya (Ramabhyudaya Kathakusumamanjari, a version of the epic Ramayana), Timmarya of Anekal (Ananda Ramayana, 1708), Balavaidya Cheluva (Lilavati, and an encyclopedia of precious stones called Ratnasastra),[111] and Puttayia (Maisuru Arasugala Purvabhyudaya, c. 1713, an account of the history of the Kingdom of Mysore).[129]
19th century writings
Age of prose and drama
After the death of
Aliya Lingaraja Urs, a native of Heggadadevanakote and a son-in-law (Aliya) of Maharaja Krishnaraja III was a prolific writer with over fifty works spanning various genres: devotional songs, musical compositions, kavya (classical poems), over thirty Yakshagana plays, and other dramas. The author used multiple pen-names including, "lingaraja" and "linganripa". For his contributions to the fine arts, he earned the title Ubhaya Kavita Visharada (lit. "Master of poetry in two languages" – Kannada and Sanskrit).[136] Among his best-known Kannada works are the poem Prabhavati Parinaya and the two versions of the classical epic Girija Kalyana ("Marriage of the mountain born goddess"), in Yakshagana style and in sangatya metre. The writing gives an account of the Girija, the daughter of Himavanta, her youthful days and her successful penance which resulted in her marriage to the Hindu god Shiva.[137][138] Yadava, also a court-poet, penned two prose pieces, Kalavati Parinaya (1815) in the dandaka vritta (blank verse) metre and Vachana Kadambari, a prose rendering of the classical Sanskrit original by poet Bana.[57]
The Jain poet Devachandra (1770–1841), a native of Kankagiri, was in the court of Krishnaraja III and authored three noted works: Pujyapada Charite, a poem on the life of the Jain saint Pujyapada in sangatya metre; Ramakathavatara, the poet's Jain version of the Hindu epic Ramayana in champu metre; and Rajavalikathe (1838), a biographical account of the Mysore royal family, some earlier poets, and stories of religious importance.[139] Another Jain writer of merit was Chandrasagaravarni, author of Kadambapurana and other works.[138] Devalapurada Nanjunda of Nanjangud, a mere court attendant, rose to the level of a court poet for his scholarship in Kannada and Sanskrit. Among his many compositions, Sougandhika Parinaya in sangatya metre, Samudra Mathana Kathe (a Yakshagana play), Sri Krishna Sarvabhoumara Charitre in sangatya metre, and Krishnendra Gite in choupadi metre are well-known. He earned the honorific Ubhaya Bhasha Kavi ("Poet of two languages").[140] Modern Kannada prose saw its nascent beginning in 1823 with Mudra Manjusha ("Seal Casket"). It is an elaboration of a play summarised in the Sanskrit original, Mudra Rakshasa by Vishakadatta, and was written by Kempu Narayana, a court poet of Maharaja Krishnaraja III.[141]
External influences
Eager to spread their gospel in Kannada, Christian missionaries took to the Kannada language. The establishment of the printing press and English language education had a positive effect on Kannada prose. Periodicals and newspapers were published for the first time.
A surge in the generation of prose narratives and dramatic literature, inspired by writings in English, Sanskrit, modern Marathi and modern Bengali languages culminated in original works in the succeeding decades.
Basavappa Shastry (1882), a native of Mysore and court poet of Maharaja Krishnaraja III and Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar IX, earned the honorific Kannada Nataka Pitamaha (lit. "Father of Kannada stage") for his contributions to drama. His contribution to dramatic literature in the form of anthologies, translations and adaptations from English and Sanskrit, learned editions, and successful integration of musical compositions into drama is well accepted.[146] His translations from English to Kannada include Shurasena Charite ("Othello"). His Sanskrit to Kannada translations include, Kalidasa, Abhignyana Shakuntala, Vikramorvasheeya, Malavikagnimitra, Uttara Rama Charite, Chanda Koushika Nataka, Malathi Madhava and Ratnavali.[147] Other well-known Kannada writers in Chamaraja IX's court were S.G. Narasimhacharya, Dhondo Narasimha Mulabaglu, Santa Kavi and B. Ventakacharya.[138]
The earliest modern novels in the Kannada language are the Suryakantha by Lakshman Gadagkar (1892) and the Indrabayi (1899) by Gulvadi Venkata Rao. The later work is reformist and decried corruption and encouraged widow remarriages.[148] Suri Venkataramana Shastri's modern social play Iggappa Heggadeya Vivaha Prahasana ("Iggappa Heggade's farce of marriage", 1887) and Dhareswar's Kanya Vikraya (1887) carried a similar reformist outlook while Santa Kavi's Vatsalaharana (1885) drew upon mythological and folk themes.[60]
Developments up to the mid-20th century
In 1881, the British handed back administrative powers to the Wodeyar family. Up to 1947, when the kingdom acceded to the
Kannada literature saw the blossoming of the Navodaya (lit. "New beginning") style of writings in genres such as lyrical poems, drama, novels and short stories, with the strong influence of English literature.
Initial development in the genre of historical novels, in the form of translations and original works, sought to re-kindle the nationalistic feelings of
The efforts of these early pioneers were to become a forerunner for the golden age in the decades to follow. A long list of noted poets and writers followed:
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- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 190–191
- ^ a b c d Murthy (1992), p. 167
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 168; Kamath (2001), pp. 278–280
- ^ Murthy (1992), pp. 168–169
- ^ a b Murthy (1992), p. 169
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 170
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), p. 227
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p. 6
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 227–228
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 227; Pranesh (2003), pp. 11–12
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1987), p 476
- ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 3934
- ^ a b c d e f Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p.1149–1150
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 84
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p. 16
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 228
- ^ Rice (1921), p. 89
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 89; Pranesh (2003), p. 17
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 220, p. 222
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 228–229
- ^ Mukherjee (1999), p. 78; Shipley (2007), p. 528
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 229–230; Pranesh (2003), pp. 20–21; Narasimhacharya (2001), p. 23
- ^ Mukherjee (1999), p. 78; Pranesh (2003), p. 21
- ^ Mukherjee (1999), p. 78
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 90
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 90; Pranesh (2003), p. 28
- ^ Pranesh (2003), pp. 28–30
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 23–24, 62, 64
- ^ Mukherjee (1999), p. 77–78; Rice (1921), pp. 89–90
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p. 31
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 23; Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 213; Pranesh (2003), pp. 31–32
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 91
- ^ Pranesh (2003), pp. 31–32
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 59; Sastri (1955), p. 365
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 210; Kamath (2001), p. 230
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Sastri (1955), p. 365
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 62; Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1077
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Pranesh (2003), p. 34
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 230; Mukherjee (1999), p. 135
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Pranesh (2003), pp. 32–33
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Pranesh (2003), p. 33
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 92
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 191
- ^ Prasad (1987), p. 6
- ^ Prasad (1987), p. 7
- ^ Prasad (1987), pp. 9–10
- ^ Naikar (2008), p. 4
- ^ Prasad (1987), pp. 17–20
- ^ Prasad (1987), p. 15
- ^ Prasad (1987), pp. 5–6
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 191–192; Prasad (1987), p. 3
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 229–230; Pranesh (2003), pp. 44–45
- ^ a b Pranesh (2003), p. 37
- ^ a b Pranesh (2003), p. 45
- ^ a b c d e Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25
- ^ a b Pranesh (2003), pp. 49–50
- ^ Brandan and Banham (1993), pp. 115–116
- ^ Ashton (2003), pp. 17–23
- ^ Pranesh (2003), pp. 37–38
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), p. 281
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 884
- ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 883
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 200–201
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1764
- ^ Mukherjee (1999), p. 142
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 201; Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921) p. 81
- ^ Pranesh (2003), pp. 42–43
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p. 49
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p. 43
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25; Pranesh (2003), p. 49
- ^ Ciṭaṇīsa and Chitnis (2000), p. 11
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), pp. 89, 92
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 249, 278; Pranesh (2003), p. 53
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 278
- ^ Pranesh (2003), pp. 54–55
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 26; Murthy (1992), p. 167
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p. 55
- ^ Pranesh (2003), pp. 55, 58, 60
- ^ Pranesh (2003), pp. 78–80
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p. 80; Murthy (1992), p. 168
- ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (2003), p. 26
- ^ Mukherjee (1999), pp. 89, 311
- ^ Pranesh (2003), pp. 87–88
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 280; Mukherjee (1999), p. 238
- ^ a b c Murthy (1992), p. 168
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), pp. 279–280; Murthy (1992), p. 168
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 168–169; Kamath (2001), p. 281
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 169; Kamath (2001), p. 282
- ^ Das (1991), p. 238
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1077; Pranesh (2003), pp. 82–83
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 169; Kamath (2001), p. 281
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 254, 257–261, 284–286, 291–294
- ^ Murthy (1992), pp. 170–173
- ^ Murthy (1992), pp. 170–171
- ^ Murthy (1992), p. 171
- ^ Murthy (1992), pp. 171–172
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 281; Murthy (1992), p. 172
- ^ a b c Murthy (1992), p. 172
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p 1057
- ^ Murthy (1992), pp. 173, 174, 178, 190
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1437
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