NASA Astronaut Group 2
Next Nine | |
---|---|
Gemini spacecraft. | |
Year selected | 1962 |
Number selected | 9 |
NASA Astronaut Group 2, also known as the Next Nine and the New Nine, was the second group of
The nine astronauts were
As of 2024, the last surviving member of the group is Jim Lovell.
Background
The launch of the
By 1961, although it was yet to launch a person into space, the STG was confident that Project Mercury had overcome its initial setbacks, and that the United States had overtaken the Soviet Union as the most advanced nation in space technology. The STG began considering Mercury Mark II, a two-person successor to the
On April 18, 1962, NASA formally announced that it was accepting applications for a new group of astronauts who would assist the Mercury astronauts with Project Mercury, and join them in flying Project Gemini missions. It was anticipated that they might go on to command Project Apollo missions. Unlike the selection process for the Mercury Seven, which was carried out in secret, this selection was widely advertised; public announcements and the minimum standards were communicated to aircraft companies, government agencies and the Society of Experimental Test Pilots.[10]
Selection criteria
Right now, in the beginning, we are picking experienced test pilots, not because they are fighter pilots, but because they have experience in dealing with new machines, unusual situations, being scared to death yet reacting properly. We're not saying for a minute that no one except test pilots has this experience. But this group also has the engineering background that we're looking for to get our programs started.
— Gus Grissom, February 1963[11]
The five minimum selection criteria were that an applicant:[10][12]
- was an experienced test pilot, with 1,500 hours test pilot flying time, who had graduated from a military test pilot school, or had test pilot experience with NASA or the aircraft industry;
- had flown high-performance jet aircraft;
- had earned a degree in engineering or the physical or biological sciences;
- was a U.S. citizen, under 35 years of age, and 6 feet 0 inches (1.83 m) or less in height; and
- was recommended by their employer.
The criteria differed from those of the Mercury Seven selection in several ways. The
At this time,
Selection process
The
There are a lot of people who'll say you're deserting the Air Force if you're accepted into NASA. Well, I'm the Chief of the Air Force, and I want you to know I want you in this program. I want you to succeed in it, and that's your Air Force mission. I can't think of anything more important.[18]
In all, 253 applications were received by the June 1, 1962, deadline.[13] Neil Armstrong submitted his application a week after the deadline, but Walter C. Williams, the associate director of the Space Task Group, wanted Armstrong for the space program, so he had Richard Day, who acted as secretary of the selection panel, add it to the pile of applications when it arrived. Paul Bikle, the director of the NASA's Flight Research Center, and therefore Armstrong's boss, declined to recommend Armstrong for astronaut selection because he had misgivings about his performance.[19]
The three-person selection panel consisted of Mercury Seven astronauts Alan Shepard and Deke Slayton, and NASA test pilot Warren J. North, although Williams sat in on some sessions.[20] They reduced the candidates to 32 finalists,[21] from whom they hoped to select between five and ten new astronauts. Nine of the USAF's eleven candidates were chosen as finalists, and one of those rejected, Joe Engle, was selected with NASA Astronaut Group 5 in 1966.[16] Of the rest, thirteen were from the Navy, four were Marines, and six were civilians.[21] Four had been finalists in the Mercury Seven selection: Pete Conrad, Jim Lovell, John Mitchell and Robert Solliday.[22] Lovell had not been selected for the Mercury Seven due to a high bilirubin blood count.[23]
The finalists were sent to
Nine candidates were selected, and their names forwarded to Gilruth for approval. Slayton informed each of them by phone on September 14.
As with those who had been passed over in the Mercury Seven selection, most of the rejected finalists went on to have distinguished careers. Three achieved
Demographics
Like the Mercury Seven, all of the Next Nine were male and white, and all were married, with an average of two children.
Their average age at the time of selection was 33 years and one month, compared to 34 years and ten months for the Mercury Seven when they were selected in April 1959. They had an average of 2,800 flying hours each, 1,900 of them in jets. This was 700 fewer flying hours than the Mercury Seven, but 200 more hours in jets. Their average weight was slightly higher – 161.5 pounds (73.3 kg) compared to 159 pounds (72 kg).
Group members
Image | Name | Born | Died | Career | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Neil A. Armstrong | Wapakoneta, Ohio, August 5, 1930 |
August 25, 2012 | Armstrong graduated from lunar module pilot, Buzz Aldrin, became the first people to land on the Moon. Armstrong was the first person to step onto its surface, and he spent two and a half hours outside the spacecraft. He earned a Master of Science degree in aerospace engineering from the University of Southern California in 1970. He resigned from NASA in 1971, and taught aerospace engineering at the University of Cincinnati until 1979. He served on the Apollo 13 accident investigation, and on the Rogers Commission, which investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster .
|
[39][37] | |
Frank F. Borman II | Gary, Indiana, March 14, 1928 |
November 7, 2023 | Borman received a Bachelor of Science degree from the Chairman of the Board in December 1976.
|
[39][42][43][44][45] | |
Charles (Pete) Conrad Jr. | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, June 2, 1930 |
July 8, 1999 | Conrad graduated from Ocean of Storms. He and pilot Alan Bean made two moonwalks, recovering components from the Surveyor 3 probe, which had landed there two years before. In 1973 he commanded Skylab 2, the first crewed Skylab mission, and spent 28 more days in space. On this mission, he and his crewmates repaired significant launch damage to the Skylab space station . He retired from NASA and the Navy in 1973.
|
[39][42][46] | |
James A. Lovell Jr. | Cleveland, Ohio, March 25, 1928 |
Lovell graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree from the Bill Anders conducted the first crewed circumlunar mission. In April 1970, he became the first person to fly in space four times, and the first to travel to the Moon twice, when he commanded the ill-fated Apollo 13 mission. He resigned from NASA and the Navy on March 1, 1973.
|
[39][47] | ||
James A. McDivitt | Chicago, Illinois, June 10, 1929 |
Tucson, Arizona, October 13, 2022 |
McDivitt joined the USAF in 1951 and flew 145 combat missions in the Korean War. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from the University of Michigan, graduating first in the class in 1959. That year he also graduated from the USAF Experimental Test Pilot School with Class 59-C, and he graduated from the ARPS with Class I in 1960. He commanded the Gemini 4 mission, during which White performed the first U.S. spacewalk. He was the first astronaut to command his first space mission. In March 1969, he commanded the Apollo 9 flight, which was the first crewed flight test of the Lunar Module and the complete set of Apollo flight hardware. He later became Manager of Lunar Landing Operations and was the Apollo Spacecraft Program Manager from 1969 to 1972. In February 1972, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general, becoming the first astronaut to reach that rank. He retired from NASA and the USAF later that year to pursue a career in the aviation industry, and became a senior vice president at Rockwell International. | [39][48][35][36] | |
Elliot M. See, Jr. | Dallas, Texas, July 23, 1927 |
February 28, 1966 | See graduated from the Gemini 9, but died in a T-38 plane crash less than four months before launch.
|
[39][38] | |
Thomas P. Stafford | Weatherford, Oklahoma, September 17, 1930 |
March 18, 2024 | Stafford graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree from the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project flight, the first joint U.S.-Soviet space mission. He was a brigadier general at the time of the mission, becoming the first general officer to fly in space, as well as the first member of his Naval Academy class to pin on the first, second, and third stars of a general officer. He retired from the USAF in 1979.
|
[39][49][50][51] | |
Edward H. White II | San Antonio, Texas, November 14, 1930 |
Cape Canaveral, Florida, January 27, 1967 |
White received a Bachelor of Science degree from the spacewalk. He was selected as the Senior Pilot of Apollo 1 , the inaugural flight of the Apollo spacecraft. White was killed in the fire on the launch pad test in January 1967, a month before the scheduled liftoff.
|
[39][52] | |
John W. Young | San Francisco, California, September 24, 1930 |
January 5, 2018 | Young graduated from Georgia Institute of Technology with a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering in 1952 and joined the Navy. He set world time-to-climb records for 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) and 25,000 metres (82,000 ft). His first space mission was as pilot of Gemini 3, the first crewed Gemini mission, in March 1965. He went on to command Gemini 10 in July 1966. In May 1969, he was Command Module pilot of Apollo 10, the "dress rehearsal" for the Apollo 11 Moon landing. On the way back to Earth, the Apollo 10 crew reached a speed of 24,791 miles per hour (39,897 km/h), the highest speed attained by a crewed vehicle. He returned to the Moon in April 1972 as commander of Apollo 16, the fifth crewed lunar landing, becoming the ninth person to walk on the Moon and the second to fly to it twice. He served as Chief of the Astronaut Office from 1974 to 1987. In April 1981, he commanded the STS-1 mission, the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle Columbia. When he commanded STS-9, the first Spacelab mission, in November 1983, he became the first person to travel into space six times.
|
[39][49][53] |
Assimilation
The new astronauts became known as the Next Nine,[54] or the New Nine.[55] They moved to the Houston area in October 1962. Most of them bought lots and built houses in Nassau Bay, a new development to the east of the MSC.[56] Conrad and Lovell built houses in Timber Cove, south of the MSC.[57] Developers in Timber Cove and Nassau Bay offered astronauts mortgages with small down payments and low interest rates.[58] The MSC complex was not yet complete, so NASA temporarily leased office space in Houston.[59] Slayton's wife Marge and Borman's wife Susan organized an Astronauts' Wives Club along the lines of the Officers' Wives Clubs that were a feature of military bases. As Slayton was in charge of astronaut activities, Marge was considered to be the equivalent of the commanding officer's wife.[56][60] The nine were honored guests at Houston society parties, such as those thrown by socialite Joanne Herring, and their wives received $1,000 Neiman Marcus gift vouchers (equivalent to $10,000 in 2022) from an anonymous source.[61]
A lawyer, Henry Batten, agreed to negotiate a deal with
Training
Astronaut training was supervised by Raymond Zedehar, who reported to Warren North, the Director of Flight Crew Operations at the MSC. Initially, each of the astronauts was given four months' of classroom instruction on subjects such as
In Zero-G training at
Following the precedent set by the Mercury Seven, each of the Next Nine was assigned a special area in which to develop expertise that could be shared with the others, and to provide astronaut input to designers and engineers.
Legacy
Collins wrote that in his opinion "this group of nine was the best NASA ever picked, better than the seven that preceded it, or the fourteen, five, nineteen, eleven and seven that followed."[68] Slayton felt so too, describing them as "probably the best all-round group ever put together."[69] Looking over the tentative schedule of Apollo missions, Slayton calculated that up to 14 three-person crews might be required, but the 16 astronauts on hand could fill just five. Though he considered the schedule to be optimistic, he did not want a shortage of astronauts to be the reason the schedule could not be met, and he therefore proposed another round of recruiting.[70] On June 5, 1963, NASA announced that it was seeking another ten to fifteen new astronauts.[71]
The Next Nine went on to illustrious careers as astronauts. Apart from See and White, who were killed in a T-38 crash and in the Apollo fire, respectively, all went on to command Gemini and Apollo missions. Six of the nine flew to the Moon (Lovell and Young twice), and Armstrong, Conrad and Young walked on it as well.[72] Seven of the nine received the Congressional Space Medal of Honor for their service, valor, and sacrifice:[73]
- Armstrong, for commanding Apollo 11, the first lunar landing;[74]
- Borman, for commanding Apollo 8, the first crewed mission to the Moon;[74]
- Conrad, for commanding Skylab 2, and saving the damaged station;[75]
- Lovell, for commanding the ill-fated Apollo 13;[76]
- Stafford, for commanding the international Cold War Apollo-Soyuz Test Project;[77]
- White, posthumously, killed in the Apollo 1 fire;[78] and
- Young, for commanding the first Space Shuttle mission, STS-1, in the Columbia.[79]
Citations
- ^ Swenson, Grimwood & Alexander 1966, pp. 28–29, 37.
- ^ Swenson, Grimwood & Alexander 1966, p. 82.
- ^ Burgess 2011, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Swenson, Grimwood & Alexander 1966, pp. 131–132.
- ^ "All 'Original Seven' American astronauts now dead". phys.org. December 8, 2016. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
- ^ Deiss, Heather (June 5, 2013). "Mercury – April 1959". NASA. Retrieved March 28, 2019.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Brooks, Grimwood & Swenson 1979, p. 15.
- ^ Hacker & Grimwood 2010, pp. 1–5.
- ^ a b Burgess 2013, pp. 5–6.
- ^ a b Grissom, Gus (February 1963). "The MATS Flyer Interviews Major Gus Grissom". The MATS Flyer (Interview). Interviewed by John P. Richmond, Jr. Military Air Transport Service, United States Air Force. pp. 4–7. Retrieved June 28, 2020.
- ^ a b Atkinson & Shafritz 1985, p. 10.
- ^ a b Slayton & Cassutt 1994, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Weitekamp, Margaret A. (January 28, 2010). "Lovelace's woman in space program". NASA. Retrieved May 6, 2019.
- ^ "More Astronauts to be Picked Soon" (PDF). NASA Roundup. Vol. 1, no. 12. April 4, 1962. Retrieved May 6, 2019.
- ^ a b Burgess 2013, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Stafford & Cassutt 2002, p. 36.
- ^ Borman & Serling 1988, pp. 87–88.
- ^ Hansen 2012, pp. 195–197.
- ^ Burgess 2013, p. 7.
- ^ a b Burgess 2013, pp. 32–33.
- ^ a b Burgess 2013, p. 343.
- ^ Kluger & Lovell 1995, pp. 180–183.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 37–40.
- ^ Burgess 2013, p. 43.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 47–48.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 50–52.
- ^ a b Slayton & Cassutt 1994, p. 120.
- ^ a b Burgess 2013, pp. 64–67.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 62–63.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 64–66.
- ^ Burgess 2013, p. 67.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 117–120.
- ^ a b "Space: Nine More Astronauts". Time. September 28, 1962. Retrieved May 6, 2019.
- ^ a b French & Burgess 2007, p. 26.
- ^ a b Stevens, Clifford (March 13, 1969). "Profile of an Astronaut: The Jim McDivitt A Pastor Knows". The Advocate. Vol. 18, no. 11. Retrieved August 23, 2021.
- ^ a b Burgess 2013, pp. 145–147.
- ^ a b Burgess 2013, pp. 154–155.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "MSC Names Nine New Pilot Trainees" (PDF). NASA Roundup. Vol. 1, no. 24. September 19, 1962. pp. 1, 4–5. Retrieved May 7, 2019.
- ^ Collins 2001, p. 42.
- ^ Burgess 2013, p. 54.
- ^ a b Burgess 2013, pp. 147–149.
- ^ Borman & Serling 1988, p. 102.
- ^ Slayton & Cassutt 1994, pp. 136–138.
- ^ "NASA astronaut Frank Borman who commanded Apollo 8 to the moon dies". NPR. Retrieved November 9, 2023.
- ^ Conrad & Klausner 2005, pp. 113–118.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 150–152.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 152–153.
- ^ a b Hadhazy, Adam (August 10, 2015). "How fast could humans travel safely through space?". BBC. Retrieved May 7, 2019.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 155–156.
- ^ "Thomas P. Stafford :: Notable Graduates :: USNA". United States Naval Academy. Retrieved August 23, 2021.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 156–158.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 158–159.
- ^ Wolfe 1979, pp. 392–393.
- ^ Koppel 2013, p. x.
- ^ a b c d Slayton & Cassutt 1994, p. 123.
- ^ Koppel 2013, pp. 103–104.
- ^ Wolfe 1979, p. 396.
- ^ Burgess 2013, p. 163.
- ^ Wolfe 1979, pp. 396–398.
- ^ Koppel 2013, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Burgess 2013, p. 164.
- ^ "Training of Astronaut candidates" (PDF) (Press release). NASA. January 26, 1963. 63-10. Retrieved September 17, 2021.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 165–169.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 170–174.
- ^ "Training of Astronaut candidates" (PDF) (Press release). NASA. January 26, 1963. 63-13. Retrieved September 17, 2021.
- ^ Burgess 2013, pp. 166–167.
- ^ Collins 2001, p. 32.
- ^ Slayton & Cassutt 1994, p. 119.
- ^ Slayton & Cassutt 1994, p. 132.
- ^ Morse & Bays 1973, p. 61.
- ^ "Apollo Astronauts". National Air and Space Museum. Retrieved May 8, 2019.
- ^ "Congressional Space Medal of Honor". NASA. April 28, 2006. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
- ^ a b "Kennedy Space Center, Florida Remarks at the Congressional Space Medal of Honor Awards Ceremony". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved May 8, 2019.
- ^ "NASA Honors Apollo 12 Commander Charles Conrad". NASA. Retrieved May 8, 2019.
- ^ "Remarks on Presenting the Congressional Space Medal of Honor to James A. Lovell, Jr., and an Exchange With Reporters". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved May 8, 2019.
- ^ Pearlman, Robert Z. (June 27, 2005). "Moon Rock to be Awarded to Apollo-Soyuz Astronaut Thomas Stafford". Space.com. Retrieved May 7, 2017.
- ^ "William J. Clinton: Remarks on Presenting the Congressional Space Medal of Honor Posthumously to Roger B. Chaffee and Edward H. White II". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved May 7, 2019.
- ^ "Remarks at a White House Luncheon Honoring the Astronauts of the Space Shuttle Columbia". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved May 8, 2019.
General references
- Atkinson, Joseph D. & Shafritz, Jay M. (1985). The Real Stuff: A History of NASA's Astronaut Recruitment Program. Praeger special studies. New York: Praeger. OCLC 12052375.
- OCLC 17983615.
- Brooks, Courtney G.; Grimwood, James M. & Swenson, Loyd S. Jr. (1979). Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft. NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA. OCLC 4664449. SP-4205.
- OCLC 747105631.
- OCLC 905162781.
- OCLC 45755963.
- Conrad, Nancy & Klausner, Howard (May 2005). Rocketman: Astronaut Pete Conrad's Incredible Ride to the Moon and Beyond. New York: New American Library. OCLC 57311427.
- OCLC 804741762.
- Hacker, Barton C. & Grimwood, James M. (2010) [1977]. On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (PDF). NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans. OCLC 945144787. NASA SP-4203.
- Hansen, James R. (2012). First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong. New York: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 1029741947.
- OCLC 1053909345.
- OCLC 816563627.
- Morse, Mary Louise & Bays, Jean Kernahan (1973). "The Apollo Spacecraft – A Chronology, Volume II: November 8, 1962 – September 30, 1964" (PDF). The NASA Historical Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. NASA SP-4009.
- OCLC 937566894.
- OCLC 829407543.
- Swenson, Loyd S. Jr.; Grimwood, James M. & Alexander, Charles C. (1966). This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury (PDF). The NASA History Series. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. OCLC 569889. NASA SP-4201.
- OCLC 849889526.
External links
- Media related to NASA Astronaut Group 2 at Wikimedia Commons