NASA Astronaut Group 8
TFNG (Thirty-Five New Guys) | |
---|---|
Year selected | 1978 |
Number selected | 35 |
NASA Astronaut Group 8 was a group of 35
In Astronaut Group 8, two different kinds of astronaut were selected: pilots and
Four members of this group,
Background
Equal employment opportunity at NASA
The enactment of the
The
Harris soon proved a feisty and forceful presence who was unafraid to ask uncomfortable questions. After reading a newspaper report that Wernher von Braun had used slave labor to build his rockets during World War II, she asked him if it was true.[8] She wanted her original job back,[7] and civil service rules required that affirmative action directors report directly to the administrators of government agencies.[8] To fill the position, NASA's deputy administrator, George Low, appointed Dudley McConnell, NASA's most senior African-American engineer to the position, with Harris as one of his deputies.[9] Harris, Samuel Lynn (a former Tuskegee airman) and Joseph M. Hogan prepared a report on the state of equal opportunity in NASA on their own time, and submitted it directly to Fletcher.[7] The report concluded:
NASA has demonstrated to the world that it has limitless imagination, vision, capability, courage and faith, limitless persistence and infinite space potential. It made the United States a winner in space and improved the quality of life for all people. ... However, in spite of sincere efforts on the part of some NASA management and employees, human rights in NASA have not even gotten off the ground. In fact, Equal Opportunity is a sham in NASA.[10]
Fletcher fired Harris, transferred Hogan, and gave Lynn a stern warning. To the surprise of Fletcher and Low, Harris's firing generated a storm of negative coverage in the media.
Preparing for the Space Shuttle
Harris noted that one issue that came up constantly was that of when the all-white, all-male NASA Astronaut Corps would recruit its first woman or a minority astronaut. In a July 19, 1972, memorandum to Ted Groo, the Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, she urged that this be rectified as a matter of urgency.[17] NASA's directors agreed in September 1972 on the need for a plan to be drawn up defining the schedule and requirements for crewing the Space Shuttle, but it was not expected to fly before 1978, and NASA already had sufficient astronauts to carry out scheduled missions and the proposed early Space Shuttle flights too, so no new astronauts would be required before 1982. Assuming twenty months between a call for applications and an individual's first flight, it was estimated NASA would not need to initiate an astronaut recruitment process before 1980.[18]
Planning proceeded on the make up of a Space Shuttle crew. By 1972, five roles were envisaged:
- Commander (CDR), an astronaut who would be responsible for flying the spacecraft, and for all aspects of the mission;
- Pilot (PLT), a co-pilot, an astronaut who would be a deputy to the commander;
- Mission specialist (MS), astronauts who would perform other duties related to the operation of the spacecraft, of which there might be more than one per mission;
- Payload specialist (PS), a non-astronaut with expertise in the spacecraft's payload; and
- Passenger, a non-astronaut present as an uninvolved observer.[19]
Although the payload specialist and passengers would not be astronauts, it was expected that they would have to undergo some astronaut training for safety purposes. An early decision was that mission specialist astronauts would not be required to undergo pilot training, which had been required of the scientist astronauts selected in
Recruitment
Selection board
A comprehensive recruitment plan for pilots was drawn up in 1974, and for mission specialists the following year, but specific provisions to recruit women and minorities were not completed until early 1976. The Director of the Johnson Space Center (JSC), Christopher C. Kraft Jr., created an Astronaut Selection Board on March 12, 1976, and it held its first meeting on March 24.[21] The makeup of the board was:
- Chairman
- George Abbey, Director of Flight Crew Operations, JSC
- Recorder
- Jay F. Honeycutt, Assistant to the Director of the JSC
- Pilot Panel
- John W. Young, astronaut, Chief of the Astronaut Office
- Vance Brand, astronaut
- Martin L. Raines, Director of Safety, Reliability and Quality Assurance
- Joseph D. Atkinson, Chief of the Equal Opportunity Programs Office, JSC
- Jack R. Lister, Personnel Office, JSC
- Donald K. Slayton, astronaut, Manager of Approach and Landing Tests, JSC
- Mission Specialist Panel
- Joseph Kerwin, astronaut, Chief of the Mission Specialist Group, Astronaut Office, JSC
- Robert A. Parker, astronaut
- Edward Gibson, astronaut
- Carolyn Huntoon, Chief of Metabolism and Biochemistry Branch, JSC
- Joseph D. Atkinson, Chief of the Equal Opportunity Programs Office, JSC
- Jack R. Lister, Personnel Office, JSC
- James Trainor, Associate Chief of the High Energy Physics Laboratory, Goddard Space Flight Center
- Robert Piland, Associate Director for Program Development, JSC[22][23]
By this time it had been nearly ten years since NASA had last conducted an astronaut selection process in June 1967; NASA Astronaut Group 7 had transferred from the United States Air Force's Manned Orbiting Laboratory in June 1969 without one.[24] The presence of Huntoon, a white woman, and Atkinson, a black man, meant that this was the first time people other than white men had served on a NASA astronaut selection board.[25]
Call for applications
On July 8, 1976, NASA issued a call for applications for at least 15 pilot candidates and 15 mission specialist candidates. For the first time, new selections would be considered
Military personnel would have to forward applications through their service departments. They would be seconded to NASA, and would receive their usual pay and allowances. Civilians astronaut candidates could apply directly. Their pay was set at Federal government General Schedule grades 7 to 15, depending on achievements and academic experience, with salaries ranging from around $11,000 to $34,000 (equivalent to $59,000 to $182,000 in 2023). Minorities and women were encouraged to apply. The deadline for applications was June 30, 1977, with training expected to commence on July 1, 1978.[26]
NASA management were certain that there were highly qualified women and minorities out there, but they needed to persuade them to apply. A special team consisting of Mary Wilmarth and Baley Davis from the JSC Personnel Office, and Joseph D. Atkinson and Jose R. Perez from the JSC Equal Opportunity Programs Office was created to publicize the recruitment effort. NASA centers and NASA contractors were canvassed for prospective applicants, minority and women's professional organizations were contacted, and graduated schools and government agencies were asked to notify their students and employees. Political organizations like the Congressional Black Caucus and NAACP were contacted. Advertisements were placed in minority magazines with minority readership like Ebony, Black Enterprise, Essence and Jet. Nichelle Nichols, an African-American actor best known for the television series Star Trek was hired to do spot advertising.[28] Her publicity firm, Women in Motion, was paid $49,000 ($equivalent to $262,000 in 2023). She met with members of community organizations, colleges and institutions to familiarize them with the requirements for Space Shuttle astronaut candidates.[29]
Unlike previous calls for applications, the 1976 one did not specify a requirement for citizenship of the United States. This was because on June 1, 1976, the Supreme Court had ruled in the case of Hampton v. Mow Sun Wong that the Civil Service Commission could not issue regulations prohibiting the employment of non-citizens. It however, left the door open to their prohibition through statute or executive order. On September 2, 1976, President Gerald Ford issued Executive Order 11935, requiring citizenship for Federal employment, thereby effectively nullifying the Supreme Court's ruling. Some applications were received from non-citizens. On December 7, 1976, NASA's Director of Personnel, Carl Grant, advised the selection board that any applications accepted from non-citizens should be on the understanding that they would take up US citizenship before the end of the two-year training and evaluation period.[30]
Selection process
Between July 1976 and June 1977, the JSC received 24,618 inquiries. Of these 20,440 requested and were sent application packages.
The selection board assessed 649 of the pilot applicants as qualified. Of these, 147 were military and 512 were civilians; ten were minorities and eight were women. From these, 80 were selected for interviews, of whom 76 were military and four were civilians; three were minorities but there were no women.[23] The first woman to graduate from the United States Naval Test Pilot School, Beth Hubert, did not do so until 1985,[35] and the first to graduate from the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School, Jane Holley, in 1974.[36]
Of the mission specialist applicants, 5,680 were regarded as qualified. Of these, 161 were military, six of whom were minorities and three of whom were women. The other 5,519 were civilians. Of these, 332 were minorities and 1,248 were women. The selection board reduced the number of applicants to 208, of which 80 were pilot applicants and 128 were the mission specialist applicants. Of the pilot applicants, 76 were from the military and four were civilians; three of the military applicants were minorities. Of the 128 mission specialist applicants, 45 were from the military, four of whom were minorities and two were women, and 83 were civilians, of whom four were minorities and twelve were women.[23]
The 208 applicants were divided into ten groups of about twenty, and called in to the JSC for interviews and medical tests. The latter were conducted under the supervision of Sam L. Pool, the chief of the Medical services Division at JSC. On April 1, 1977, twenty volunteers were run through the medical selection to work out the procedures and logistics of it. The tests involved 24 procedures, including a general examination by a flight surgeon. The candidate's medical history was examined, and psychological, psychiatric, ophthalmological, neurological, dental, musculoskeletal and eye, nose and throat examinations were conducted. Tests were conducted using a rotating chair to test susceptibility to motion sickness, on a treadmill to measure heart rate, and with a Personal Rescue Enclosure to test for claustrophobia.[37] The psychiatric process was not free of gender bias; one consultant was later found to have rejected 40 percent of female applicants in the 1978, 1980, 1984 and 1985 selections but only 7 percent of male ones.[38] Applicants were put up at the Kings Inn Ramada in Clear Lake, Texas, where an evening reception and pre-interview briefing was held. The medical tests eliminated 56 applicants, and three more indicated that they did not wish to proceed. That left 149 applicants (74 pilots and 75 mission specialists) who were listed.[37]
From this group, the selection board nominated 20 pilot and 20 mission specialist astronaut candidates. However, in November 1977, NASA Administrator
On January 16, 1978, Abbey contacted the 35 successful applicants and notified them of their selection, and asked them to confirm that they still wanted the job. Three were outside the United States;
Group members
Pilots
Image | Name | Born | Died | Career | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Daniel C. Brandenstein | Watertown, Wisconsin, U.S. January 17, 1943 |
Brandenstein graduated from NAS Patuxent River, Maryland , with class 59 in October 1971, along with Frederick Hauck. He flew in space four times:
He was Chief of the Astronaut Office from April 1987 to September 1992, and retired from NASA and the U.S. Navy on October 1, 1992. |
[43][44][45] | ||
Michael L. Coats | Sacramento, California, U.S. January 16, 1946 |
Coats graduated from Michael J. Smith , and served as an instructor there from April 1976 to May 1977. He flew in space three times:
He was Acting Chief of the Astronaut Office from May 1989 to March 1990, and retired from NASA and the U.S. Navy on August 1, 1992. |
[46][47][48] | ||
Richard O. Covey | Fayetteville, Arkansas, U.S. August 1, 1946 |
Covey graduated from Choctawhatchee High School in Shalimar, Florida, and earned a Bachelor of Science degree in engineering science with a major in astronautical engineering from the United States Air Force Academy in 1968, and a Master of Science degree in Aeronautics and Astronautics from Purdue University in 1969. He flew 339 combat missions in Southeast Asia, and graduated the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School in 1975 with class 74B, along with Elison Onizuka and Jane Holley. He flew in space four times:
He retired from NASA on July 11, 1994, and from the U.S. Navy on August 1, 1994. |
[49][50][36] | ||
John O. Creighton | Orange, Texas, U.S. April 28, 1943 |
Creighton graduated from NAS Patuxent River, Maryland , from June 1970 to February 1971. He flew in space three times:
He retired from NASA and the U.S. Navy on July 15, 1992. |
[51][36][52] | ||
Robert L. Gibson | Cooperstown, New York, U.S. October 30, 1946 |
"Hoot" Gibson graduated from NAS Patuxent River in June 1977. He flew in space five times:
He was Chief of the Astronaut Office from December 1992 to September 1994. He retired from the U.S. Navy in June 1996, and from NASA and November 1996. |
[53][54] | ||
Frederick D. Gregory | Washington, D.C., U.S. January 7, 1941 |
Gregory from NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, with Class 58 from September 1970 to June 1971. In June 1974, he was posted to the NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia , as a test pilot. He flew in space three times:
Gregory served at NASA Headquarters as Associate Administrator for the Office of Safety and MissionAssurance from 1992 to 2001, as Associate Administrator for the Office of Space Flight from 2001 to 2002, and as NASA Deputy Administrator from 2002 to 2005, becoming the first African-American to hold this position. He resigned from NASA in October 2005
|
[55][56] | ||
S. David Griggs | Portland, Oregon, U.S. September 7, 1939 |
June 17, 1989 | Griggs graduated from NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, in 1967. He retired from active duty in 1970, and joined the JSC as a test pilot. He flew in space only once. He was assigned as pilot for STS-33 , but was killed in an aircraft accident several months before the launch.
|
[57] | |
Frederick H. Hauck |
Long Beach, California, U.S. April 11, 1941 |
Hauck graduated from U.S. Naval Test Pilot School in 1971 with Class 59, which also included Daniel Brandenstein.
He flew in space three times:
In May 1989, he returned to the Navy as Director of the Navy Space Systems Division, in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. He retired from active duty on June 1, 1990. |
[58][59] | ||
Jon McBride | Charleston, West Virginia, U.S. August 14, 1943 |
McBride graduated from U.S. Naval Postgraduate School in 1971. He flew 64 combat missions in Southeast Asia, and graduated from the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in California with class 75A in December 1975 along with Guy Gardner, Steven Nagel and Loren Shriver. He flew in space only once:
McBride was scheduled to fly again as commander of STS-61-E in March 1986, but the mission was cancelled in the wake of the January 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. On July 30, 1987, he was assigned to NASA Headquarters to serve as Assistant Administrator for Congressional Relations. He held this post from September 1987 until March 1989. He was named as commander of the STS-35 (ASTRO-1) mission scheduled for March 1990, but he retired from NASA and the Navy in May 1989 before it was flown. |
[60][61] | ||
Steven R. Nagel | Canton, Illinois, U.S. October 27, 1946 |
August 21, 2014 | Nagel graduated from University of Illinois in 1969 and a Master of Science degree in mechanical engineering from California State University, Fresno, in 1978. He served a one-year tour of duty as a flight instructor in Thailand, and graduated from the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base with class 75A in December 1975 along with Guy Gardner, Jon McBride and Loren Shriver.
He flew in space four times:
Nagel retired from the Air Force on February 28, 1995, and from the Astronaut Office on March 1, 1995, to assume the full-time position of deputy director for operations development, Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance Office at the Johnson Space Center. In September 1996, he transferred to the Aircraft Operations Division as a research pilot, chief of aviation safety and deputy division chief. He retired from NASA on May 31, 2011 |
[62][59] | |
Francis R. Scobee | Cle Elum, Washington, U.S. May 19, 1939 |
January 28, 1986 | Scobee graduated from U.S. Air Force Aerospace Research Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in California with class 71B in 1972. He then flew the Martin Marietta X-24 , an experimental aircraft designed to test the concept of unpowered reentry and landing later used by the Space Shuttle. He flew in space once:
On his second mission, he died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster: | ||
Brewster H. Shaw Jr. | Cass City, Michigan, U.S. May 16, 1945 |
Shaw graduated from University of Wisconsin in 1968, and a Master of Science degree in engineering mechanics from the University of Wisconsin in 1969. He graduated from the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base with class 75B, the same class as Mike Mullane and Jerry Ross. He flew in space three times:
He left JSC in October 1989 to become the head of Space Shuttle Operations at KSC. He subsequently became the deputy program manager for the Space Shuttle, and Director of Space Shuttle Operations. He left NASA in 1996. |
[65][66] | ||
Loren J. Shriver |
Jefferson, Iowa, U.S. September 23, 1944 |
Shriver graduated Paton Consolidated High School in Paton, Iowa, and from the United States Air Force Academy with the class of 1967. He graduated from the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in December 1975 with class 75A, the same class as Guy Gardner, Jon McBride and Steven Nagel. He flew in space three times:
In 1993 he left JSC and became the Space Shuttle Program Manager, Launch Integration, at KSC. He was Deputy Director for Launch and Payload Processing there from 1997 to 2000, and the Deputy Program Manager of the Space Shuttle Program from 2000 to 2006. He retired NASA and from the USAF as a colonel in 2006. |
[23][67][68] | ||
David M. Walker | Columbus, Georgia, U.S. May 20, 1944 |
April 23, 2001 | Walker graduated NAS Patuxent River , Maryland. He flew in space four times:
He left NASA and the Navy on April 15, 1996. |
[69][70][71] | |
Donald E. Williams | Lafayette, Indiana, U.S. February 13, 1942 |
February 23, 2016 | Williams graduated from Otterbein High School in NAS Patuxent River , Maryland, with class 65 in June 1974. He flew in space twice:
He was the Deputy Manager, Operations Integration, National Space Transportation System Program Office at JSC from September 1982 until July 1983, Deputy Chief of the Aircraft Operations Division at JSC from July 1985 toAugust 1986, and Chief of the Mission Support Branch of the Astronaut Office from September 1986 to December 1988. He retired from NASA and the US Navy with the rank of captain in March 1990. |
[72][73][74] |
Mission specialists
Image | Name | Born | Died | Career | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Guion S. Bluford Jr. |
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania , U.S.November 22, 1942 |
Bluford graduated from Cam Ranh Bay Air Base . He flew in space four times:
He retired from NASA and the Air Force in July 1993. |
[75][76][77] | ||
James F. Buchli |
New Rockford, North Dakota, U.S. June 20, 1945 |
Buchli graduated from Patuxent River, Maryland . He flew in space four times:
He served as Deputy Chief of the Astronaut Office from March 1989 until May 1992. He retired from the U.S. Marine Corps and NASA on September 1, 1992. |
[78] | ||
John M. Fabian | Goose Creek, Texas , U.S.January 28, 1939 |
Fabian graduated from Air Force ROTC at Washington State University, and flew 90 combat missions in Southeast Asia as a Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker pilot. He flew in space twice:
He was scheduled to fly again in May 1986 on STS-61-G, but he announced his intention to resign in September 1985, and was replaced by Norman Thagard. Fabian left NASA on January 1, 1986, and returned to the USAF as the Director of Space in the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Air Force, Plans and Operations. He retired from the USAF as a colonel in June 1987. |
[79][80] | ||
Anna L. Fisher | St. Albans, Queens, New York, U.S. August 24, 1949 |
Fisher graduated from San Pedro, California, in 1967, and earned a Bachelor of Science in Chemistry from the University of California, Los Angeles, (UCLA) in 1971, a Doctor of Medicine from UCLA in 1976, and a Master of Science in chemistry from UCLA in 1987. Fisher flew in space only once:
She was assigned as a mission specialist on the STS-61-H that was scheduled to fly 1986, but the mission was cancelled in the aftermath of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. In 1989, she took a leave of absence from the Astronaut Office to raise her family. She returned in January 1996, and was Chief of the Space Station branch from 1996 to 2002. From January 2011 until August 2013, she served as an ISS Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) in the Mission Control Center. She retired from NASA on April 28, 2017. |
[81][82] | ||
Dale A. Gardner |
Fairmont, Minnesota, U.S. November 8, 1948 |
February 19, 2014 | Gardner graduated as NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, from May 1971 to July 1973, he was involved in the development of the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which he later flew with Fighter Squadron 1 (VF-1) from the USS Enterprise . He flew in space twice:
Gardner returned to the Navy in 1986, and was assigned to the Peterson Air Force Base . He retired from the Navy in October 1990
|
[83][84] | |
Terry J. Hart |
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania , U.S.October 27, 1946 |
Hart fraduated from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1964, and earned a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering from Lehigh University in 1968, a Master of Science degree in mechanical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1969, and a Master of Science in electrical engineering from Rutgers University in 1978. He was on active duty with the USAF from 1969 to 1973, when he joined the New Jersey Air National Guard . He flew in space once:
Hart was offered a second space flight on Bell Telephone Laboratories, and with the breakup of the Bell System he was asked to return. He left NASA on June 15, 1984, and retired from the Air National Guard in 1990.
|
[85][86][87] | ||
Steven A. Hawley |
Ottawa, Kansas, U.S. December 12, 1951 |
Hawley graduated from PhD in astronomy and astrophysics from the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1977. He flew in space five times:
He was Technical Assistant to the Director of Flight Crew Operations from 1984 to 1985, and Deputy Chief of the Astronaut Office from 1987 to 1990. He left the Astronaut Office in June 1990 to become the Associate Director of NASA's Ames Research Center in California but returned to the Johnson Space Center in August 1992 as Deputy Director of Flight Crew Operations, and returned to astronaut flight status in February 1996. He was Director, Flight Crew Operations from October 2001 to November 2002, First Chief Astronaut for the NASA Engineering and Safety Center from 2003 to 2004, and Director of the Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science (ARES) Directorate from 2002 to 2008. He retired from NASA in May 2008. |
[88] | ||
Jeffrey A. Hoffman | Brooklyn, New York November 2, 1944 |
Hoffman graduated from PhD in astrophysics from Harvard University in 1971, and a master's degree in materials science from Rice University in 1988. He flew in space five times:
Hoffman retired from the Astronaut Corps in 1997 to become NASA's European representative in Paris in 2008. He left NASA in August 2001 to become a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. |
[89][90][91] | ||
Shannon M. W. Lucid | China January 14, 1943 |
Lucid graduated from PhD in biochemistry from the University of Oklahoma in 1973. She flew in space six times:
Lucid was NASA's Chief Scientist from February 2002 until September 2003, when she returned to the Astronaut Office. She retired from NASA in January 2012. |
[92][93] | ||
Ronald E. McNair |
Lake City, South Carolina, U.S. October 21, 1950 |
January 28, 1986 | McNair graduated from Carver High School in PhD in physics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1976. He flew space once:
On his second mission, he died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster:
|
[94] | |
R. Michael Mullane | Wichita Falls, Texas, U.S. September 10, 1945 |
Mullane graduated from St. Pius X Catholic High School in Albuquerque, New Mexico, in 1963, and earned a Bachelor of Science degree in military engineering from the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, in 1967, and a Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from the Air Force Institute of Technology in 1975. He flew 150 combat missions in the Vietnam War as an McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II weapon system operator between January and November 1969. He completed the Flight Test Engineering Course with class 75B at the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in California, and was assigned as a flight test weapon system operator at Eglin Air Force Base in Florida. He flew in space three times:
He retired from NASA and the USAF on July 1, 1990. |
[95][96][97] | ||
George D. Nelson | Charles City, Iowa, U.S. July 13, 1950 |
Nelson graduated from Willmar Senior High School in PhD in Astronomy from the University of Washington in 1978. He flew in space three times:
He retired from NASA on June 30, 1989. |
[98][99] | ||
Ellison S. Onizuka |
Kealakekua, Hawaii, U.S. June 24, 1946 |
January 28, 1986 | Onizuka graduated from Konawaena High School in Kealakekua, Hawaii, in 1964, and earned a Bachelor of Science degree in aerospace engineering from the University of Colorado in June 1969, and Master of Science degrees in aerospace engineering from the University of Colorado in December 1969. He flew in space once:
On his second mission, he died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster:
|
[100] | |
Judith A. Resnik |
Akron, Ohio, U.S. April 5, 1949 |
January 28, 1986 | Resnik graduated from University of Maryland in 1977. She flew in space once:
On her second mission, she died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster:
|
[101] | |
Sally K. Ride |
Encino, Los Angeles, California, U.S. May 26, 1951 |
July 23, 2012 | Ride graduated from PhD in physics from Stanford University in 1978. She flew in space twice:
Ride was a member of the Presidential Commission that investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster . She left NASA on August 15, 1987.
|
[102][103] | |
Margaret Rhea Seddon |
Murfreesboro, Tennessee November 8, 1947 |
Seddon graduated from Central High School in Doctorate of Medicine degree from the University of Tennessee College of Medicine in 1973. She flew in space three times:
She retired from NASA on September 15, 1997. |
[104][105] | ||
Robert L. Stewart | Washington, D.C., U.S. August 13, 1942 |
Stewart graduated from NAS Patuxent River in Maryland, graduating with class 65 in 1974, and was then assigned as an experimental test pilot to the U.S. Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity at Edwards Air Force Base in California . He flew in space twice:
He was in training for a third flight known as US Space Command in Colorado Springs, Colorado . He retired from the Army in 1992
|
[106] | ||
Kathryn D. Sullivan | Paterson, New Jersey October 3, 1951 |
Sullivan graduated from PhD in geology from Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia , Canada, in 1978. She flew in space three times:
She left NASA in March 1993 to become Chief Scientist of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). She served as Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere and NOAA Administrator on March 6, 2014, having been acting NOAA Administrator since February 28, 2013, and served until January 20, 2017. |
[107][108] | ||
Norman E. Thagard |
Marianna, Florida, U.S. July 3, 1943 |
Thagard graduated from University of Texas Southwestern Medical School in 1977. He flew in space six times:
He retired from NASA in December 1995. |
[109] | ||
James D. A. van Hoften |
Fresno, California, U.S. June 11, 1944 |
Van Hoften graduated from PhD in hydraulic engineering from Colorado State University in 1976.
He joined the Navy in 1969, and flew 60 combat missions in the 147th Fighter Interceptor Group of the Texas Air National Guard . He flew in space twice:
He retired from NASA on June 17, 1986. |
[110][111] |
Nickname
Of the 73 astronauts in the seven groups before Group 8, only 27 were still active in 1978, and were outnumbered by the new class.
An official class patch was designed by NASA artist Robert McCall. It depicted the Space Shuttle, the number 35, and the year 1978. The class patch became another NASA tradition. Judy Resnick and Jim Buchli also designed a class logo depicting a Space Shuttle with 35 astronauts clinging to it. Below was the group name "TFNG" and the group motto "We Deliver". The artwork adorned coffee mugs and T-shirts, which came in red and blue for the two teams into which the TFNG were split.[114]
Demographics
The 35 new astronaut candidates were introduced to the public in a press conference at the Olin E. Teague auditorium at JSC on February 1, 1978. Most of the attention was on the six women, and, to a lesser extent, the four minority men.[115] Mike Mullane later recalled that the 25 white males were "invisible".[116] The hiring of the six women as astronaut candidates doubled the number of women in technical roles in JSC,[117] but they found counsellors and role models in Carolyn Huntoon and Ivy Hooks.[115] Huntoon was the most senior woman in a technical position at JSC, and became the default liaison between the six women astronaut candidates and NASA management.[117] She spoke with them before the initial news conference, and urged them to consider how much personal information they would divulge. They decided to adopt a group approach, and keep their private lives remaining private. The Houston Post chose to write about how the husbands of Fisher and Lucid had chosen to leave their jobs and move to Houston with their astronaut candidate wives.[118] Psychological testing soon showed that the women astronauts had far more in common with their male counterparts than with the female population of the United States as a whole.[119]
Of the 35 astronaut candidates, 20 came from the armed services, and four others (Terry Hart, David Griggs, Norman Thagard and Ox van Hoften) had previously served in the military but were civilians at the time of their selection. Twenty had served in combat. Of the 15 pilot astronaut candidates, eight came from the US Navy, six from the USAF, and one (David Griggs) was a NASA test pilot. All were test pilots, eight having graduated from the US Naval Test Pilot School at NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, and seven from the USAF Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Of the twenty mission specialist astronaut candidates, seven came from the armed services, of whom four were from the USAF, and one each from the US Navy, USMC and US Army; Bob Stewart became the first Army officer to become an astronaut. Ten had never served in the military, although one of them, Katherine Sullivan, later served in the US Navy Reserve as an oceanographer from 1988 to 2006.[120] Ten of the 35 had bachelor's degrees, thirteen had master's degrees and twelve had doctorates.[121]
Training
Training was different from that of earlier astronaut classes in several ways, mainly because it was focused on the Space Shuttle. The
Nineteen of the 35 had already undergone this training in the military, so the remaining 16 (which included all six women) were sent to
Much of the first eight months of the astronaut candidates' training was in the classroom.[125] Because there were so many of them, the astronaut candidates did not fit easily into the existing classrooms, so during classroom instruction they were split into two groups, red and blue, led by Rick Hauck and John Fabian respectively, who were chosen because they were older and of higher military rank than the other candidates; as leaders they became the ones who would report to George Abbey.[126] Classroom training was given on a wide variety of subjects, including an introduction to the Space Shuttle program, space flight engineering, astronomy, orbital mechanics, ascent and entry aerodynamics and space flight physiology. Those accustomed to military and academic environments were surprised that subjects were taught, but not tested.[125] Training in geology, a feature of the training of earlier classes, was continued, but the locations visited changed because the focus was now on observations of the Earth rather than the Moon.[122]
The astronaut candidates were sent on a geological field trip to Arizona. They also visited Houston's
NASA maintained a small fleet of Northrop T-38 Talon jet aircraft at Ellington Field, not far from the JSC. These were used by the astronauts for visiting NASA and contractor installations around the country. They were also used as chase planes for the Space Shuttle, and it became a tradition for the crew to fly to KSC in T-38s before a mission. The T-38 was a trainer commonly used by the USAF and Navy, so most of the pilot astronaut candidates had flown it before, but none of the mission specialist candidates had, even among those who were trained pilots. Unlike previous astronaut groups, they were not sent to a military flight school to learn how to pilot the aircraft, but were required to learn how to fly in the back seat as a crew member. Jim Buchli and Dale Gardner had qualified for this role in the T-38 as Naval Flight Officers, and they drew up a training syllabus for mission specialist candidates with no flight experience that covered subjects such as navigation and the correct protocol for talking on the radio. Due the energy crisis of the 1970s and the consequent soaring cost of jet fuel, flight time was restricted to 15 hours a month.[129]
On August 31, 1979, NASA announced that the 35 astronaut candidates had completed their training and evaluation, and were now officially astronauts, qualified for selection on space flight crews. This brought the number of active astronauts to 62.[130] Their training, which had been expected to last 18 to 24 months, had been completed in just 14. Training of subsequent classes was shortened to just 12 months.[131] The initiation of a selection of the next class of astronaut candidates had already been announced on April 1.[132] Although NASA considered them astronauts, most did not feel like real astronauts until they were "veterans:" astronauts who had flown in space.[133] Had the Space Shuttle program been running on schedule, they would have been immediately assigned to flights, but it was now running more than two years behind. Veteran astronaut Alan Bean, the TFNG's coordinator, counseled patience, reminding them that the Group 7 astronauts had been waiting over ten years for their first flights.[134]
Operations
First missions
The first six Space Shuttle missions were orbital flight tests (OFTs). Each was commanded by a veteran astronaut, starting with
Once the OFTs were completed, the Space Shuttle could commence its designated role of launching satellites. The pilots of the STS-1 and
The MS-1 on a Space shuttle flight sat behind the pilot on the flight deck, and monitored displays and checklists. The MS-2 was the flight engineer, and sat behind the commander. The Flight Engineer assisted the commander and pilot, and acted as the third member of the flight deck crew, and an additional set of eyes during the critical phases of a mission.[136] The hopes of NASA management that a CDR-PLT-MS2 team would be able to fly three or four missions a year were never realized.[138] After a single mission as pilot, a pilot astronaut became eligible to be commander on their next mission. Although some of the mission specialists were fully qualified pilots, none ever flew as pilot on a mission, and therefore never served as a mission commander. As more than one mission specialist flew on each flight, they began flying at a faster rate than their pilot classmates. Two pilot astronauts, David Griggs and Steven Nagel, flew their first missions as mission specialists. Nagel later flew as the pilot on STS-61-A and as the commander on STS-37 and STS-55.[139] Griggs was assigned as the STS-33 pilot, but he was killed in an air crash prior to the mission.[57]
Achievements
These missions began a sizable number of American spaceflight "firsts" achieved by the group:
- First American woman in space: Sally Ride (June 18, 1983, STS-7)[102]
- First African-American in space: Guion Bluford (August 30, 1983, STS-8)[75]
- First American woman to perform an EVA: Kathryn Sullivan (October 11, 1984, STS-41-G)[107]
- First mother in space: Anna Fisher (November 8, 1984, STS-51-A)[81]
- First Asian-American in space: Ellison Onizuka (January 24, 1985, STS-51-C)[100]
- First African-American to pilot and command a mission: Frederick Gregory (April 29, 1985, STS-51-B; November 23, 1989, STS-33)
- First American to launch on a Russian rocket: Norman Thagard (March 14, 1995, Soyuz TM-21)[109]
- First American woman to make a long-duration spaceflight: Shannon Lucid (March to September 1996, Mir NASA-1)[92]
- First American active duty astronauts to marry: Robert Gibson and Rhea Seddon[53][104]
- First Army astronaut: Bob Stewart[106]
Four members of the group, Dick Scobee, Judy Resnik, Ellison Onizuka and Ronald McNair, died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster[140] These four, plus Shannon Lucid, received the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, giving this astronaut class five total recipients of this top NASA award. This is second only to the New Nine class which received seven.[141] By the time of the Challenger disaster, all 35 members of the group had flown in space, and some had flown twice.[138]
Final missions
The last flight made by a member of the group was STS-93 in July 1999, which carried Steve Hawley into space for the fifth time. He had served as flight engineer on all five of his missions. The mission involved the deployment of the Chandra X-ray Observatory; nine years earlier he had help deploy the Hubble Space Telescope.[142] In all, the Group 8 astronauts flew 103 missions, totaling over 981 days in space. The leader was Shannon Lucid, who spent over 223 days in space over the course of five missions.[143]
Group 8 astronauts also performed important ground-based duties. Sally Ride served on the
With Lucid's retirement, only Anna Fisher remained at NASA. She worked for the Capsule Communicator and Exploration branches of NASA as a station CAPCOM and on display development for the Orion project.[81] She was on the selection board for NASA Astronaut Group 20 in 2009,[144] the first group since 1978 who would not be trained to fly the Space Shuttle.[146] The role of mission specialist was abolished, and crew members who flew to the ISS were classified as flight engineers.[147] Fisher served as an ISS Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) at the Mission Control Center from January 2011 through August 2013, and was the lead CAPCOM for Expedition 33 in 2012. She retired on April 29, 2017, the last of the Group 8 astronauts who had been selected nearly forty years before.[148] The Thirty Five New Guys reshaped the image of the American astronaut into one that reflected the diversity of American society, and they paved the way for future classes of astronauts, which would include women as pilots and commanders.[149]
Notes
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- ^ Rivers 1973, pp. 460–461.
- ^ McQuaid 2007, p. 426.
- ^ a b McQuaid 2007, p. 425.
- ^ McQuaid 2007, p. 424.
- ^ a b McQuaid 2007, p. 428.
- ^ a b c d McQuaid 2007, p. 431.
- ^ a b McQuaid 2007, p. 430.
- ^ S2CID 22222809, retrieved September 16, 2020
- ^ Ruel, Mills & Thomas 2018, p. 32.
- ^ McQuaid 2007, p. 434.
- ^ Delaney, Paul (October 28, 1973). "Top Black Woman is Ousted by NASA". The New York Times. p. 23. Retrieved September 16, 2020.
- ^ McQuaid 2007, pp. 436–438.
- ^ "Ruth Bates Assumes New Post at NASA" (PDF). The Astrogram. Vol. 16, no. 25. September 12, 1974. Retrieved September 16, 2020.
- ^ McQuaid 2007, p. 442.
- ^ "Harriett G. Jenkins's Biography". The History Makers. Retrieved September 16, 2020.
- ^ Atkinson & Shafritz 1985, p. 135.
- ^ Atkinson & Shafritz 1985, pp. 138–139.
- ^ a b Shayler & Burgess 2020, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Santy 1994, p. 51.
- ^ Atkinson & Shafritz 1985, pp. 144–145.
- ^ Atkinson & Shafritz 1985, p. 175.
- ^ a b c d e f Reim, Milton (January 16, 1978). "NASA Selects 35 Astronaut Candidates" (PDF) (Press release). NASA. 78-03. Retrieved September 17, 2020.
- ^ Shayler & Burgess 2020, p. 1.
- ^ Atkinson & Shafritz 1985, p. 147.
- ^ a b "NASA to Recruit Space Shuttle Astronauts" (PDF) (Press release). NASA. July 8, 1976. 76-44. Retrieved September 17, 2020.
- ^ Shayler & Burgess 2020, p. 7.
- ^ Atkinson & Shafritz 1985, pp. 150–151.
- ^ Atkinson & Shafritz 1985, pp. 154–155.
- ^ Atkinson & Shafritz 1985, pp. 162–163.
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- ^ Atkinson & Shafritz 1985, pp. 163–165.
- ^ Shayler & Burgess 2020, p. 14.
- ^ Atkinson & Shafritz 1985, pp. 168–169.
- ^ Scrivo, Karen L. (August 3, 1986). "She Still Has the Right Stuff: Test Pilot Succeeds Despite Restrictions". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. Retrieved September 17, 2020.
- ^ a b c Shayler & Burgess 2020, p. 84.
- ^ a b Shayler & Burgess 2020, pp. 12–15.
- ^ Santy 1994, pp. 57–58.
- ^ Shayler & Burgess 2020, pp. 31–32.
- ^ a b Shayler & Burgess 2020, pp. 31–33.
- ^ Shayler & Burgess 2020, pp. 535–547.
- ^ Shayler & Burgess 2020, p. 123.
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