Nagorno-Karabakh
Nagorno-Karabakh (lit. 'Upper Karabakh') | |
---|---|
Population | |
• 2013 estimate | 146,573[1] |
• 2010 census | 141,400[2] |
• Density | 29/km2 (75.1/sq mi) |
Time zone | UTC+4 |
Nagorno-Karabakh (/nəˌɡɔːrnoʊ kərəˈbɑːk/ ⓘ nə-GOR-noh kər-ə-BAHK)[3] is a region in Azerbaijan, covering the southeastern stretch of the Lesser Caucasus mountain range. Part of the greater region of Karabakh, it spans the area between Lower Karabakh and Syunik. Its terrain mostly consists of mountains and forestland.
Most of Nagorno-Karabakh was governed by
The region is usually equated with the administrative borders of the former Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, comprising 4,400 square kilometres (1,700 sq mi); however, the region's historical extent encompasses approximately 8,223 square kilometres (3,175 sq mi).[5][6]
On 27 September 2020, the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War broke out with an Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh and the surrounding territories.[7] Azerbaijan made significant gains during the war, regaining all of the occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh and capturing one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh, including Shusha and Hadrut.[8][9][10][11] The war ended on 10 November 2020 when a trilateral ceasefire agreement was signed between Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russia, under which all the remaining occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh were formally returned to Azerbaijani control. The Republic of Artsakh became an isolated rump state connected with Armenia only by a narrow Russian-controlled corridor.
On 19 September 2023, after a blockade lasting several months, Azerbaijan launched a fresh large-scale military offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh.[12][13][14][15][16] The Artsakh forces collapsed rapidly, resulting in an Azerbaijani victory, the dissolution of the Republic of Artsakh,[17] the exodus of almost the entire Armenian population from the region[18] and the entry of Azerbaijani security forces into the former Artsakh capital of Stepanakert, known as Khankendi by Azerbaijan.[19] On 1 January 2024, the Republic of Artsakh was formally dissolved.[20]
Etymology
The prefix Nagorno- derives from the Russian
The names for the region in the various local languages all translate to "mountainous Karabakh", or "mountainous black garden":
- Armenian: Լեռնային Ղարաբաղ, transliterated Leṙnayin Ġarabaġ, pronounced [lɛrnɑˈjin ʁɑɾɑˈbɑʁ] ⓘ
- Azerbaijani: Dağlıq Qarabağ, Дағлыг Гарабағ, lit. 'mountainous Karabakh', pronounced [dɑɣˈlɯɣ ɡɑˈɾɑbɑɣ] ⓘ
or Yuxarı Qarabağ, Јухары Гарабағ, lit. 'upper Karabakh', pronounced [juxɑˈɾɯ ɡɑˈɾɑbɑɣ] ⓘ - Russian: Нагорный Карабах, transliterated Nagorny Karabakh, pronounced [nɐˈɡornɨj kərɐˈbax]
Armenians living in the area often call Nagorno-Karabakh Artsakh (
History
Antiquity and Early Middle Ages
Nagorno-Karabakh falls within the lands occupied by peoples known to modern archaeologists as the
The ancient population of the region consisted of various autochthonous local and migrant tribes who were mostly non-Indo-Europeans.[25] According to the prevailing western theory, these natives intermarried with Armenians who came to the region after its inclusion into Armenia in the 2nd (or possibly earlier, the 4th) century BC.[26] Other scholars suggest that the Armenians settled in the region as early as the 7th century BC.[27]
Around 180 BC, Artsakh became one of the 15 provinces of the
In 387 AD, after the partition of Armenia between the Roman Empire and
Armenian culture and civilization flourished in the early medieval Nagorno-Karabakh. In the 5th century, the first-ever Armenian school was opened on the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh at Amaras Monastery through the efforts of St. Mesrop Mashtots, the inventor of the Armenian alphabet.[33] St. Mesrop was very active in preaching the Gospel in Artsakh and Utik. Overall, Mesrop Mashtots made three trips to Artsakh and Utik, ultimately reaching pagan territories at the foothills of the Greater Caucasus.[34] The 7th-century Armenian linguist and grammarian Stephanos Syunetsi stated in his work that Armenians of Artsakh had their own dialect, and encouraged his readers to learn it.[35]
High Middle Ages
Around the mid 7th century, the region was conquered by the invading Muslim Arabs through the
. Subsequently, Artsakh continued to exist as a de facto independent principality.Late Middle Ages
In the 15th century, the territory of Karabakh was part of the states ruled subsequently by the
The Armenian meliks were granted supreme command over neighbouring Armenian principalities and Muslim khans in the Caucasus by the Iranian king Nader Shah, in return for the meliks' victories over the invading Ottoman Turks in the 1720s.[49] These five principalities[50][51] in Karabakh were ruled by Armenian families who had received the title Melik (prince) and were the following:
- Principality of Gulistan – under the leadership of the Melik-Beglarian family
- Principality of Jraberd – under the leadership of the Melik-Israelian family
- Principality of Hasan-Jalalianfamily
- Principality of Varanda – under the leadership of the Melik-Shahnazarian family
- Principality of Dizak – under the leadership of the Melik-Avanian family
From 1501 to 1736, during the existence of the
Modern era
In 1822, 9 years after it passed from Iranian to Russian control, the Karabakh Khanate was dissolved and the area became part of the Elizavetpol Governorate within the Russian Empire. In 1823 the five districts corresponding roughly to modern-day Nagorno-Karabakh were 90.8% Armenian-populated.[63][64]
Soviet era
After the
In July 1918, the First Armenian Assembly of Nagorno-Karabakh declared the region self-governing and created a National Council and government.[67] Later, Ottoman troops entered Karabakh, meeting armed resistance by Armenians.
After the defeat of the
In April 1920, while the Azerbaijani army was locked in Karabakh fighting local Armenian forces, Azerbaijan was taken over by
With the Soviet Union firmly in control of the region, the
War and secession
On 13 February 1988, Karabakh Armenians began demonstrating in
On 29 November 1989, direct rule in Nagorno-Karabakh was ended and the region was returned to Azerbaijani administration.
On 10 December 1991, in a referendum boycotted by local Azerbaijanis,
The struggle over Nagorno-Karabakh escalated after both Armenia and Azerbaijan attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. In the post-Soviet
By the end of 1993, the conflict had caused about 30,000 casualties[91] and created hundreds of thousands of refugees on both sides.[citation needed] By May 1994, the Armenians were in control of 14% of the territory of Azerbaijan.[92] At that stage, for the first time during the conflict, the Azerbaijani government recognized Nagorno-Karabakh as a third party in the war and started direct negotiations with the Karabakh authorities. As a result, a ceasefire was reached on 12 May 1994 through Russian mediation.
Post-1994 ceasefire
Despite the ceasefire, fatalities due to armed conflicts between Armenian and Azerbaijani soldiers continued.
Several[
On 2 April 2016 Azerbaijani and Armenian forces again clashed in the region.[
2020 war and ceasefire agreement
On 27 September 2020, a new war erupted in Nagorno-Karabakh and the surrounding territories.[7] The United Nations strongly condemned the conflict and called on both sides to deescalate tensions and resume meaningful negotiations without delay.[109]
The war ended on 10 November 2020, when a trilateral ceasefire agreement was signed among Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russia.[110] According to the ceasefire agreement, Azerbaijan regained all of the occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh and capturing one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh proper, including Shusha and Hadrut.[8][9][10][11][111]
Blockade (2022–2023)
In December 2022, Azerbaijanis claiming to be environmental activists blocked the
Azerbaijani offensive (2023)
On 19 September 2023, Azerbaijan
Geography
Nagorno-Karabakh has a total area of 4,400 square kilometres (1,699 sq mi).
Nagorno-Karabakh does not directly border Armenia but is connected to the latter through the
The major cities of the region are Stepanakert, which serves as the capital of the unrecognised Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, and Shusha, which lies partially in ruins. Vineyards, orchards, and mulberry groves for silkworms are developed in the valleys.[132]
Environment
Nagorno-Karabakh's environment vary from
Demographics
Antiquity – 1918
Historically, the inhabitants of Nagorno-Karabakh—then part of the
According to an 1823 Russian survey published in Tiflis (present-day Tbilisi) in 1866,[135] Armenians made up 97 percent of the population in the five districts (mahals) of Nagorno-Karabakh,[138] thus proving, contrary to claims in Azerbaijani historiography, that Armenians formed an overwhelming majority of Nagorno-Karabakh prior to 1828. Historian George Bournoutian writes that Russian statistics from 1810 show that Armenians made up 21 percent of the Karabakh region's population; In 1823, the Armenian population of Karabakh had increased by 30 percent "after the return of those who had fled the region", and by 1832, the Armenian population had increased to one-third of Karabakh. Moreover, the "one-third" of the population of Karabakh composed of Armenians resided in one-third of the territory of Karabakh, the mountainous territory (i.e. Nagorno-Karabakh), where they "constituted an overwhelming majority of the population."[135]
1918–1920
According to Armenian sources, the "historical Nagorno-Karabakh" region had a population of 300,000–330,000 in 1918–1920, rising to 700,000–800,000 by 1988. As a result of "
1921–1987
1923 statistics indicate that the NKAO was 94.8 percent Armenian, numbering 149,600, whilst the Azerbaijani population numbered 7,700. Historian Cory Welt writes of a "discrepancy" of the Armenian population jumping by over 25,000 individuals between the 1921 and 1923 censuses, also pointing out that the Armenian population declined to 111,700 in 1926, thus indicating an "unexplained drop" of 38,000 individuals.[146] In the 1920s, the NKAO had a population of 131,500 people, 94.4 percent (124,136) of whom were ethnic Armenians and only 5.6 percent (7,364) of whom were ethnic Azerbaijanis.[137] In 1933, Nagorno-Karabakh had a population of 147,308, 10,751 (7.3 percent) of whom were urban dwellers, and 136,557 (92.7 percent) of whom were rural residents.[147] On 1 January 1973, the oblast had a population of 153,000.[148]
Discrimination and stagnation
Whilst the region was a part of the Azerbaijan SSR, the Armenian share of the population dropped from 94.7 to 76.9 percent, whilst the Azerbaijani share of the population quadrupled from 5.1 to 21.5 percent[137] as a result of "migratory influx"[139]—indicative of the socio-economic difficulties local Armenians experienced under Soviet Azerbaijani leadership which led them to emigrate from Karabakh.[137] Emeritus professor of law M. Cherif Bassiouni writes of the stagnation of the Armenian population "due to the discriminatory policies of Azerbaijani authorities that compelled Armenians to emigrate"; also adding that 600,000 Armenians from Karabakh reside in Armenia and the countries of the CIS.[139] Stuart J. Kaufman, a professor of political science and international relations,[149] writes of the difficulties of Karabakh Armenians:
In Mountainous Karabagh, Armenian-language education was not easily available, Armenian history was not taught at all, and those who went to Armenia for training were discriminated against in competing for jobs in the province, since even routine hiring had to be cleared with Baku. Underinvestment in the region—also blamed on Baku—meant less economic development and poor infrastructure even by Soviet standards, and therefore fewer jobs overall, especially for Armenians. Cultural ties with Armenia were strangled in red tape in Baku, and a decision to make Armenian-language television available in the region was left unimplemented. One result of these policies was a continuing exodus of Armenians from Karabagh in search of greener pastures.[150]
1988–present
Following the
Ethnic group | 1921[146][152] | 1923[134][146] | 1925[134] | 1926[134][153] | 1939[134][154] | 1959[134][155] | 1970[134][156] | 1979[134][157] | 1989[158] | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
Armenians | 122,426 | 94.73 | 149,600 | 94.8 | 142,470 | 90.28 | 111,694 | 89.24 | 132,800 | 88.04 | 110,053 | 84.39 | 121,068 | 80.54 | 123,076 | 75.89 | 145,450 | 76.92 |
Azerbaijanis[a] | 6,550 | 5.07 | 7,700 | 4.9 | 15,261 | 9.67 | 12,592 | 10.06 | 14,053 | 9.32 | 17,995 | 13.80 | 27,179 | 18.08 | 37,264 | 22.98 | 40,688 | 21.52 |
Russians | 267 | 0.21 | 500 | 0.3 | 46 | 0.03 | 596 | 0.48 | 3,174 | 2.10 | 1,790 | 1.37 | 1,310 | 0.87 | 1,265 | 0.78 | 1,922 | 1.02 |
Ukrainians | 30 | 0.02 | 35 | 0.03 | 436 | 0.29 | 238 | 0.18 | 193 | 0.13 | 140 | 0.09 | 416 | 0.22 | ||||
Belarusians | 12 | 0.01 | 11 | 0.01 | 32 | 0.02 | 35 | 0.02 | 37 | 0.02 | 79 | 0.04 | ||||||
Greeks | 68 | 0.05 | 74 | 0.05 | 67 | 0.05 | 33 | 0.02 | 56 | 0.03 | 72 | 0.04 | ||||||
Tatars | 6 | 0.00 | 29 | 0.02 | 36 | 0.03 | 25 | 0.02 | 41 | 0.03 | 64 | 0.03 | ||||||
Georgians | 5 | 0.00 | 25 | 0.02 | 16 | 0.01 | 22 | 0.01 | 17 | 0.01 | 57 | 0.03 | ||||||
Others | 151 | 0.12 | 235 | 0.16 | 179 | 0.14 | 448 | 0.30 | 285 | 0.18 | 337 | 0.18 | ||||||
Total | 129,243[b] | 100.00 | 157,800 | 100.0 | 157,807 | 100.00 | 125,159 | 100.00 | 150,837 | 100.00 | 130,406 | 100.00 | 150,313 | 100.00 | 162,181 | 100.00 | 189,085 | 100.00 |
Transport
Location
|
ICAO | DAFIF | IATA | Airport name | Coordinates |
Stepanakert | UBBS | UB13 | Stepanakert Airport[159] | 39°54′05″N 46°47′13″E / 39.90139°N 46.78694°E |
During the rule of the Soviet Union, the Yevlakh–Aghdam–Stepanakert line connected the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region with the main part of Azerbaijan. After the Nagorno-Karabakh war and the abandonment of Ağdam, the line's service was cut back to service only between Yevlax and Kətəlparaq, without any present section at the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. The former railway line between Kətəlparaq and Stepanakert has been almost completely destroyed.
The (
See also
- Timeline of Artsakh history
- Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations
- List of active separatist movements in Europe
- Janapar – the hiking trail across Nagorno-Karabakh
- Outline of Nagorno-Karabakh
- Post-Soviet states
- Yekbûn
Notes
References
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As a result of the 2020 war, however, Azerbaijan received all territories around Soviet-era Nagorno Karabakh that were occupied by Armenian forces during the first Karabakh war, plus the two regions of Nagorno Karabakh proper: Shushi/Shusha and Hadrut.
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The Armenian side also lost territories within the former NKAO, namely the district of Hadrut and the strategic town of Shusha/Shushi, areas that were not even considered for handover to Azerbaijan during the long years of diplomatic negotiations between the two wars.
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The new agreement allows Azerbaijan to keep the territory it took by force, including Shusha and Hadrut, within the historic boundaries of Nagorno-Karabakh. It also requires Armenian forces to turn over other territories they have occupied for the last 26 years, including the so-called Lachin corridor, which is Nagorno-Karabakh's primary link to Armenia proper.
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- Orontids' Kingdom of Armenia)
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- ^ Walker, Christopher J. (1991). Armenia and Karabagh: The Struggle for Unity. Minority Rights Group Publications. p. 10.
- ^ Viviano, Frank. "The Rebirth of Armenia", National Geographic Magazine, March 2004, p. 18,
- ^ Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of the Land of Aluank, Book I, chapters 27, 28 and 29; Book II, chapter 3.
- ^ Н.Адонц. «Дионисий Фракийский и армянские толкователи», Пг., 1915, 181—219
- ^ The Cambridge History of Iran Archived 23 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine. — Cambridge University Press, 1975. — vol. 4. — p. 506 "He was handed to Afshin's troops by Sahl b. Sunbadh, an Armenian prince in 222/836-7, and executed in Samarra (223/837) while his brother and assistant 'Abd-Allah was delivered to the prince of Tabaristan, Ibn Sharvin, who had him put to death in Baghdad."
- ^ a b c Robert H. Hewsen, Armenia: A Historical Atlas. The University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp. 119, 155, 163, 264–65.
- ^ Movses Dasxuranci translated by C. J. F. Dowsett (1961). The History of the Caucasian Albanians By Movses Dasxuranci. London: Oxford University Press. p. 217.
- ^ Тер-Григорян Т.И. Неизданные страницы "Истории Албанской страны"Моисея Каланкайтукского. Архив Ин-та истории АН Азерб. ССР, № 1386, л.18.
- ^ Christopher Walker. The Armenian presence in Mountainous Karabakh, in John F. R. Wright et al.: Transcaucasian Boundaries (SOAS/GRC Geopolitics). 1995, p. 93
- ^ Hewsen, Robert H. "The Kingdom of Artsakh", in T. Samuelian & M. Stone, eds. Medieval Armenian Culture. Chico, CA, 1983
- ^ Arḡūn Āqā — Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived 17 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine P. Jackson "It can only have caused resentment among the Muslims, and the Christian author Kirakos, in stark contrast with Jovaynī, has nothing favorable to say concerning Arḡūn’s exactions: his harsh treatment of certain Armenian princes, such as Jalāl of Ḵačen, whom he had executed in 659/1261, made him especially hateful."
- ^ "Armenia | Geography, Population, Map, Religion, & History". Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 June 2023. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
A few native Armenian rulers survived for a time in the Kiurikian kingdom of Lori, the Siuniqian kingdom of Baghq or Kapan, and the principates of Khachen (Artzakh) and Sasun."
- ^ Robert H. Hewsen. Russian–Armenian relations, 1700–1828. Society of Armenian Studies, N4, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, p 37
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- ^ Abū Bakr Ṭihrānī. Kitāb-i Diyārbakriyya. (original) کتاب دیاربکریه: از تواریخ قراقوینلو و چغاتای. ویسنده: ابوبکر طهرانی. به تصحیح و اهتمام: نجاتی لوغال، فاروق سومه. تهران : کتابخانه طهوری،۱۳۵۶. p. 138.
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- ^ (in Russian) Abbas-gulu Aga Bakikhanov. Golestan-i Iram Archived 20 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine; according to an 18th-century local Turkic-Muslim writer Mirza Adigezal bey, Nadir shah placed Karabakh under his own control, while a 19th-century local Turkic Muslim writer Abbas-gulu Aga Bakikhanov states that the shah placed Karabakh under the control of the governor of Tabriz.
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Serious historians and geographers agree that after the fall of the Safavids, and especially from the mid-eighteenth century, the territory of the South Caucasus was composed of the khanates of Ganja, Kuba, Shirvan, Baku, Talesh, Sheki, Karabagh, Nakhchivan and Yerevan, all of which were under Iranian suzerainty.
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- ^ Bournoutian, George A. A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-E Qarabagh. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994, page 18
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Of all the documents I have seen, there is no direct evidence of Stalin doing or saying something in those 12 days in the summer of 1921 that [resulted in this decision on Karabakh]. A lot of people just assume that since Stalin was an evil person, it would be typical of someone evil to take a decision like that.
- ISBN 9041114777.
- ISBN 0817991824, 9780817991821
- ^ Black Garden, Thomas de Waal, page 292
- ^ Black Garden Thomas de Waal, p.15
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{{cite book}}
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{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
Bibliography
- Ali; Ekinciel (1 August 2015). Karabakh Diary (1 ed.). Russia: Sage. ISBN 9786059932196. Archived from the originalon 2 March 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
Further reading
- Tsibenko, Veronika (2018). "Karabakh, Nagorno". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.
- Torres, Ricardo Juan (2022). "The role of Nagorno-Karabakh in the shaping of Armenian and Azeri identity". Consejo Argentino para las Relaciones Internacionales (CARI).
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External links
- Articles and Photography on Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) from UK Photojournalist Russell Pollard
- All UN Security Council resolutions on Nagorno-Karabakh, courtesy U.S. State department
- Nagorno-Karabakh Agreement of 2 November 2008 and country profile from BBC News Online
- Article on the 10 December Referendum from Russia Profile
- The conflict over the Nagorno-Karabakh region dealt with by the OSCE Minsk Conference — Report by rapporteur David Atkinson presented to Political Affairs Committee of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
- Conciliation Resources – Accord issue: The limits of leadership – Elites and societies in the Nagorny Karabakh peace process also key texts & agreements and chronology (in English & Russian)
- Independence of Kosovo and the Nagorno-Karabakh Issue Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- Interview with Thomas De Waal
- Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty. Nagorno-Karabakh: Timeline Of The Long Road To Peace
- Resolution #1416 from the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
- USIP — Nagorno-Karabakh Searching for a Solution: Key points, by Patricia Carley, Publication of the United States Institute of Peace (USIP)
- USIP — Sovereignty after Empire Self-Determination Movements in the Former Soviet Union. Case Studies: Nagorno-Karabakh. by Galina Starovoitova, Publication of the United States Institute of Peace(USIP)
- Photo Series Nagorno-Karabakh 2008–2011 – daily life, front line, mine clearance, culture, religion.